It is not applicable only with the Bible. In fact holy epics in every religion have certain difficulties and these are parts of original text. It may be true that entire holy scriptures are perfectly inerrant but it can be adhered only with the original writings. Though, all of us claim to have the holy copies on our bookshelf but those are just duplicate copies and all those have ample chances of spelling errors, repetition, omission and many more.

King James Version of the Bible is one of the most popular versions of Bible but it is translated version and hence we find here some errors as well. Language is really the biggest one problem. The prime reason is differences between writing style of ancient Hebrews and modern man. For instance; ancient Hebrew have used only capital letters, did not use vowel and words are not separated from each other. So, the word structure is like jumbled puzzle and quite tough to unlock.

Translation of idiomatic expressions is quite tricky. Sometimes, exact translation might not be possible and its representation in speech pattern may convey bit differ messages.

Difficulties in the interpretation of Bible do not end here. Hebrews have used alphabets instead of numbers. So, sometimes words suggest numerical meaning and it becomes a riddle for us. Apart from all these difficulties, there is an interesting fact that most of the copyist’ errors do not affect original messages of the Bible.

The Hebrew of the Old Testament and the Greek of the New Testament uses hundreds of different figures of speech which are quite tough to identify. Somehow, if it could be possible to recognize then it does not be possible to covey full meaning in other language.
For instance: “Hitting the bull’s eye” is a very common term in English but the literally translation in other language leaves funny meaning.

A non English speaker translator may use “God’s sheep’s child” for the term “the lamb of God”. Uses of the word like “sister” for lover in songs of Solomon 4:9 is simply the mistake of translator because in Hebrew there are a many identical words which have different meaning and the word sister is just a sample.

Question by John I: I don’t read but want to know the Christian Bible.?
I hate reading can’t stand it. I want to learn the bible though and get the knowledge from it. Is there a certain movie that is just like the bible? How did god expect the people who can’t read to read the bible? Christian bible by the way. confused for after the birth of jesus….disbelief of no solid proof. helpppppppp

Best answer:

Answer by MK6
Sorry, – the pop culture can not do the same depth as found in the bible.

But if the Bible was not written down, – what medium would we have that would last at least 2,000 years?

Add your own answer in the comments!

The human brain is one of the biggest programming that is difficult for anyone to understand, but often this mind travels to different places and remains the same. Human beings learning capability has always forced them to seek more about this world or something beyond physical level. This is the main reason for which, people have always looked to learn mind control techniques.

Well, there are various ways to learn mind control methods and to know about thoughts, that mostly moves in a Brownian movement. Mostly people feel that controlling mind is something that totally depends on magical world or related to the world of voodoo. But today, there are so many devices by which anyone can learn mind control. Most of these are designed and developed with high-tech technology that can bring relaxation.

At present, one of the most lately mind-controlling devices is the Brainwave entrainment technology. In case you would like to turn yourself in the people’s magnet with around 1000 of the people following & admiring you, you need to learn your mind control Power of the mind control is very revolutionary that you can tap in someone’s mind & easily sync with their thoughts. This can help you build the solid relationship as well as prosper in it. Even though you are just one ordinary person with an average profile, you will still be get great men and women to date with you doesnt matter how big is your competition.

This mind control programming has given a real boost to control the conscious and sub-conscious brain. If you are thinking to lean mind control with the help of hypnosis or other mediums, then it will never give you good results. Well, to control minds you need to meet someone professional in medical science field or you can buy mind control programming devices. At present, you can get different types of mind control programming equipments those are being widely available in the market.

But for that you have to do lots of research and find out which device can help you in the best way. Most of these devices come in various ranges and it may be difficult for you to choose one. One of the best places to learn mind control is the Internet. In the Internet, you can get lots of tips and methods how to start mind-controlling program.

But before trying any of these techniques it is recommended to be in the lighted side. Real secret for attracting wealth or something, which you want in life is your mind. In case you focus & learn to keep your mind from wandering around, then you can attract anything you need. You can control your thoughts, behaviors, and can get alert with all your goals & what you want in life.

The most important thing you have to always keep in mind is the fact that you can refrain yourself from making the poor decisions and avoid any other unwanted incidents. You control your own destiny.

Short documentary on mind control experiments on the humain brain by the CIA.
Video Rating: 4 / 5

Question by kaloptic: Mind control?
If you had the power to control one person’s mind/thoughts/actions for 24 hours, who’s would it be, why, and what would you do?
I guess I should clarify…one person, NOT yourself, even if you can’t control yourself. C’mon people this is total mind control, be creative!! Besides, how are you gonna explain the large sums of money you are ‘given’ by Bill Gates? The media would be all over you in a heartbeat, and noone controls the mind of the media! Except George Bush…Hmm…*thought*

Best answer:

Answer by tooblonde4u95
my teacher. i wood make him give us no homework 4 the rest of the year.

Add your own answer in the comments!

What will happen in 2012? Find the significance of 2012. Will we die in 2012? Find the truth and reality and 2012 survival guides including free 2012 videos and free 2012 books.For more about 2012 doomsday, free downloadable 2012 books, 2012 videos, 2012 news, 2012 facts and 2012 astrology, please visit the number 1 doomsday website, http://www.2012Spam.com

Question
: What is the significance of the year 2012.
Answer:
Most of you know that the earth has got a magnetic field. As the earth’s molten core is rotating; the magnetic field is created. The thought sphere of the human mind is located in the earth’s magnetic field. This mag-netic field has been weakening dramatically over last ten years. Now, in physics there is a parameter called “Schumann´s Resonance”. Using that we can determine the strength of the earth’s magnetic field. While for many centuries, it was constant around 7.80 cycles per second, during the last 7-8 years, it has risen to 11 cycles per second and is continuing to increase dramatically. If you work it out mathematically, it appears that, by the year 2012, the “Schuman´s” is likely to be 13 cycles per second. When this resonance is 13 cycles per second, the earth’s core would stop rotating with magnetic field gone, you mind is gone. When I say “your mind”, what I mean is your “samskaras”. The pressure of the past 11.000 years of samskaras will vanish. In the Dharma, we also say, “Mind is Karma”. All actions start from your mind. The mind is nothing but a storehouse of samskaras or past life vasanas from which all action emanates. This is stored in the earth’s magnetic field. So in the year 2012, it will become zero for a few days. After that the core will start rotating again. This would be a fresh beginning for man or the dawn of the Golden Age. This is the significance of the year 2012.

How do we know, it will happen?

The study of fossil records has shown that, it happens roughly after 11.000 years. It’s only a short time away and then we can all start afresh. That is why I want you to become enlightened by 2012. If you are enlight-ened, with all your samskaras gone, we can begin a new yuga, which can be called Sathya Yuga or the Golden Age. Man will enter into a new state of al-tered consciousness.

As I told you already, the earth’s resonance is increasing which means the earth’s heart is undergoing a transformation. The earth has got a physical body, like you have a body. It has got a consciousness as well. Now as the resonance is increasing the earths heart functioning very differently from before. Now, your heart and the earth’s heart are connected. The earth’s heart can be influ-enced by your heart and vice versa. That is why, it is essential that your heart-beat synchronises with the earth’s resonance. This means your heart must flower. Your heart will flower when you discover love in your relationships. If you have discover love, you must stop judging your parents, spouses, etc., internally. Nobody can be judged as the whole universe directly influences all events, even the behaviour of the people. So learn to experience life. Life has to be experienced, be it pain or pleasure

What will happen in 2012? Find the significance of 2012. Will we die in 2012? Find the truth and reality and 2012 survival guides including free 2012 videos and free 2012 books. For more about 2012 doomsday, free downloadable 2012 books, 2012 videos, 2012 news, 2012 facts and 2012 astrology, please visit the number 1 doomsday website, http://www.2012Spam.com

Music video by Jay Sean performing 2012 (It Ain’t The End). (C) 2010 Cash Money Records Inc.
Video Rating: 4 / 5

Question by asdf: 2012??????????
Heard something about end times. Can someone explain to me the reasoning behind 2012 as the final year?

Best answer:

Answer by K.
i don’t know…I did not hear that. Thats scary.

Give your answer to this question below!

Abstract

The history of the Jews is quite long and its origin is gotten from Abraham and the Hebrews. Some of the practices that are carried out by the Jews today came as a result of the covenants that god made with people like Abraham and Moses. The history entails the covenant between Abraham and god, the covenant between god and Moses in Mount Sinai, conquest of the Canaan and the judges, etc. The prophet Samuel and the kings Saul, David, and Solomon also form the history of the Jewish religion. In the history of the Jewish religion are the destruction of the temple and the fall of Rome. The sufferings that the Jews endured in the early Middle Ages form the greatest contributions to the history of the Jewish religion. The harsh times in Europe and Germany that led to the immigration of the Jews especially to the United States led to the high population of the Jews in the United States. The crusades led to the loss of lives by the Jews in large masses and all the mistreatments that the Jews endured were blamed on the Jews themselves. The festivals and the practices that the Jews in the early days practiced form the practices that the Jews practice up to date.

Introduction

The history of the Jews religion entails the faith of the Jews and their culture.  Judaism is basically the beliefs and practices that the Jews practice. It is one of the oldest religions that remain and are still being practiced up to date. Judaism mainly explains the relationship that existed between God and the children of Israel. A Jewish is any individual whose mother, grandmother, great-grandmother, etc. in that line were of the religion of the Jewish. Also if an individual was converted to Judaism in a way that is accepted by the Israeli authorities, he or she and all his or her children qualify to be Jewish. The Jews religion has its roots back from the covenant between god and Abraham. The Jews believe in the existence of one God who provides for and maintains the Jews. The Jewish religion is also regarded as a waiting religion as its followers still wait for the coming of the messiah to liberate the world. The Jewish religion faced many resistances from the Christianity as it was being developed and very many Jews lost their lives in the process. The harsh conditions and severity that the Jews were exposed to in Europe led to the immigration of these Jews to many other parts of the world especially in the Europe in search of refuge. This paper will seek to explain the historical and religious context of Judaism and the biblical Jewish history up to today.

Historical and Religious Context

The history of the Jewish religion has its way back from the creation of mankind. Abraham and the Hebrews make the greatest contributions to the origin of the Jewish religion. Abraham used to live in north Mesopotamia but one time God commanded him to leave his homeland for Canaan a foreign land. The obedience of Abraham to his God is seen here when he leaves his own land for a place that he doesn’t know. The Hebrews also spent some time in Egypt where they were mistreated and served as slaves to the Egyptians under the reign of Pharaoh before returning to Canaan. Most of the Hebrew people were farmers and seminomadic herdsmen who were organized in small tribes. In their culture, there existed messengers, the literature of the Egyptian hymns and wisdom, the literature of the Canaanite language and methodology, Mesopotamian primitive history, etc. All the cultures of the Jews believed in the existence of a God who was the creator and the preserver. There also existed religious rituals and ethics that the Jews practiced with seasons.

Abraham and the Patriarchs

The bible begins with the book of genesis and this book recognizes the existence of an all-powerful God who creates the world in six days and rests the seventh day. The human being by the name Adam is the only creature created the sixth day and is created in the God’s own image and likeness. From the book of genesis to the book of chronicle, human beings sin against god several times until a time comes when god decides to punish the human kind using a flood. The only person who survived the flood was Noah and his family. After the blood, god made a covenant with Noah that he will never again destroy the world with water (John, 1).Abraham is believed to be the founder of the Jewish community. He didn’t discover god but he was called by the same God and a covenant between god and Abraham is made where Abraham is promised many descendants. Scholars have recently identified some differences between Abraham’s and the patriarchs’ religion and Moses’ religion. Abraham is seen to refer to god in generic terms other than in specific terms and the issue of idolatry in the religion of Moses is completely absent in the religion of Abraham. In the Abraham and the patriarchs’ religion, there was the belief that sacrifices and prayer was very essentials for the enhancement of the relationship between god and the people (Charles, & Jeremiah, 236). The prayers were offered in specific places such as a stone pillar, sacred tree, or a sacred alter. When Abraham made a covenant with God, there was a mark of circumcision which the community adopted and all male children in the community were to undergo it. Up to the present day, all male children undergo circumcision on the eighth day in the synagogues.

The Journey from Egypt to Sinai and the Covenant to Moses

The Hebrew tribes served as slaves in Egypt where they moved when a famine struck their region in Canaan. They cried to God to deliver them from the oppression that was being carried out on them. God called Moses and gave him the assignment to deliver his people from the land of oppression to the Promised Land. When Moses reached Egypt, the then king refused to release the Israelites but God had heard the cries and prayers of his people and infected the Egyptians with plagues which gave the king no options other than releasing the Israelites. When the Israelites left Egypt, the king ordered his army to follow them and when reached the red sea, God drowned all the army so that the Hebrews could escape (Stephen, 236).It took the Israelites a journey of about forty years to get to the Promised Land. The Jews at one blamed Moses of taking them to the wilderness so that they could die of hunger but along the journey, god provided the Hebrews with free food and water. When they reached Mount Sinai, Moses left them at the foot of the mountain and climbed the mountain to receive the commandments. Here, God the terms of the covenant between God and the Israelites was established and the Israel was established as God’s own nation. Through the forty years journey, God remained loyal tom the Israelites even when they turned to worship idols and blamed Moses for the hunger that they experienced. Moses emerged as a conqueror though he had refused the call when he was first told of his mission by God. He emerged as a great leader in religious matters, political issues, legislative issues, and military issues. In Mount Sinai, god gave Moses the Ten Commandments that were supposed to guide the Israelites in their day to day lives (Louis, 346). When Moses came back from the mountain, he found the Israelites worshipping idols and as a result of the anger that struck him, he dropped the commandments and they broke into pieces. The contents of the covenant included the loyalty that the Israelites needed to observe on god who saved them from bondage in Egypt, the prohibition of the worship of idols, and it also contained festivals and rituals that the Israelites needed to observe as a celebration of God’s provision to them (John, 1).

Conquest of Canaan and the Judges

When the Israelites reached their promised land, some leaders were appointed for them and these leaders were known as judges. Unfortunately, this period was dominated by the worship of idols and apostasy which the covenant between god and the Israelites was totally against. However, many alters were constructed for the God of Israel where the Israelites were supposed to make sacrifices and worship this God. Many priests were also appointed especially from the society of Levites and these Levites conducted sacrifices at the temples that were constructed for the God of Israel (John, 1).A house was also constructed for the Ark of the Covenant where this Ark of the Covenant was given maximum protection. Priest from the family of Eli acted as the staff members of this house that was constructed at the Shiloh Sanctuary.

Saul, David, and Solomon

Even after reaching the Promised Land, the Israelites still had enemies and thus a way of defending their community against these enemies was necessary. The solution turned out to be an authority that was centralized and an army that was organized so that they could give the right approach to dealing with external enemies. The Israelites had an option of taking God’s given way to protect the Israelites and another option of rejecting God’s kingship. Prophet Samuel appointed the first king of Israel. When Saul defeated the Ammonites, he was appointed the first king and he ruled the community of the Israelites from a small town called Gibeah which was to the north of Jerusalem. During the reign of Saul, many conflicts arose between him and the then prophet Prophet Samuel who had many powers over the kingship. Saul was succeeded by King David whose reign helped solve the differences that existed between Saul and the prophet Samuel. David combined both the political and religious authority to his house and the descendants and all other kings were to rule from Jerusalem (John, 1).Solomon the son of David succeeded his father at a very early age. David selected Solomon regardless of having other elder sons who had expected to succeed him. Solomon acted as king of Israel for about forty years and during this period, the monarchy of the Hebrews got the highest appraisal. Solomon’s kingship was very prosperous especially during the first half of his reign. Solomon was the person who was to build a temple for the God of the Israelites. In the second half of his leadership, idolatries dominated which resulted from his intermarriages. The bible says that Solomon had seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines. Solomon married the daughter of Pharaoh form Egypt leading to a relation between the Israelites and their enemies-the Egyptians.

Divided Monarchy and the Exile

When Solomon’s role came to an end, the nation split into the northern kingdom known as Israel and the southern kingdom known as Judah. The northern kingdom was under the rule of the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser while the southern region was under the rule of the Babylonian army. The Israelites split into smaller political-religious groups among them the Pharisees and the Sadducees (John, 1).

Destruction of the Temple

A number of reasons led to the development of the kingdom the Seleucid. Among them was the defeat of the Persians by Alexander the Great, the death of Alexander that Great, and the division of the empire of Alexander by the generals that he left. The relationship between the religious Jews and the Hellenized Jews kept on deteriorating and this led to the then king of Seleucid banning some Jewish religious traditions and rites. As a result of the bans, the orthodox Jews protested under the leadership of the Maccabees. The result of the revolution was the formation of the Hasmonaean Dynasty which was an independent Jewish religion (John, 1).A civil war led to the disintegration of the Hasmonaean Dynasty. Some people didn’t want to be led by the kings but by some theocratic clergy and these people sent their requests to the roman authorities. Judea was established as an independent roman kingdom at first but it later turned to be a brutal kingdom and really mistreated the Judean subjects. Many Judeans came out in lime light revolting against the leadership of the roman rulers of Judea. The roman emperors defeated the Judeans and much of the temple in Jerusalem was destroyed and most of the artifacts that were preserved in the temple including the menorah were also stolen. After the defeat, the members of the Judean community continued to live in their former land and were also allowed to practice some of their religious rites and practices. For a long period of time the Jews were not allowed to enter to the town of Jerusalem. However, during the seventh century when the Persians were reconstructing the destroyed city, many Jews were living in the same town regardless of the ban (John, 1).The roman rule was changed to integrate other issues such as preserving tradition in a better situation, combining with the Greek society and thought, etc. People from different regions could now live peacefully with each other regardless of their tribal groups.

The fall of Rome

A number of laws were passed by the eastern Roman Empire that took away all civil rights of any individuals who were unbelievers. The existence of such unbelievers was also complicated by the passed laws and most the unbelievers had no other options than running away to rescue their lives. When they were denied their civil rights, meant that most of their freedoms were curtailed and they lived like prisoners. The Jews really suffered in the hands of the iconoclastic emperors who were believed to be heretic with some Jews tendencies. In a bid to try and fight for their lives, the Jews found themselves in some very remote states which were being established such as the Slavs and the Tatars. Here, they found protection and refuge and they could now live their lives though in some foreign land. The East-Roman Empire grew stronger and stronger and the relationship between them and their neighbors continued to enhance (John, 1).Contrary, the Western Roman Empire grew weaker and weaker and the always feel victims of the barbarians. The Jews continued to peacefully practice their faith and they didn’t have any trouble in their lives.

The Early middle Ages

During the early days, the church laws didn’t recognize the non-believers as humans and their humanity was regarded with much discrimination. In the beginning of the ninth century, the church came up with some laws that clearly addressed the issue of the believers and their treatment to the non-believers. Earlier, the believers and the Jews could not interact in any way and this helped create a gap between the two religions that proved very hard to bridge. The hard time that the church experienced in conducting its financial operations led to the integration of the Jews in their believers circle. The church could only get some money through borrowed loan that was to be returned with some interest and this loan could only be found from people of different faiths. These experiences of the church led to the rapid acquirement of influence by the Jews. Any pleasures by the Jews were to be from their homes or in their own circles. Also, the only way they could acquire some knowledge was through their own compositions and their literature. However, the Jews made all the necessary sacrifices and were completely devoted with all their nature and strength to the success of their literature (John, 1).The Jews from the western region really experienced hard conditions which depended on the ever changing political conditions. Those Jews who were in Italy during the war wagged by Rugii experienced many dark days. Here, they experienced the hard time since the roman emperors laws were greatly observed and administered. The laws of the emperors could not tolerate the practices of the Jews unlike the catholic faith where the Jews made some influences. In some places like the Pyrenean peninsula, the Jews had lived peacefully in large numbers and for many years. The Jews also enjoyed the peace when the same land was occupied by the Alani, Suevi, Visigoths, and the Vandals. However, the peace condition came to an abrupt end when the kings of Visigothic picked on Catholicism and wanted to convert all their citizens to one faith. The Jews first persevered and accepted the faith hoping that the severe conditions were to remain for a short moment. Some of them were baptized by force so that they could be allowed to remain in the region. Later, the Visigothic insisted that even those who were baptized by force had no option than to remain true to the Christian faith.

Later, the Jews conquered peninsula and they welcomed the Arabs to the land. For the Jews who had been completely converted and they wished to keep the faith of the Christian religion, the church offered maximum protection to them and protected them from compulsory conversion. The pope once wanted to protect his kingdom and the temporal power and he called for the support of the Carolingians but there was no change in the policy of conversion. Charlemagne used the church in bringing together the elements of his kingdom that had fallen apart and he also used the church in transforming the Old Roman Empire into a Christian empire (John, 1).He also united all the German races that were there during his reign and helped them to settle. When he died, most of the restrictions in the church were not observed and the non-believers were greatly mistreated.

The Crusades

The Jews endured many trials and hard times while in different kingdoms which practiced Christianity and these were just some indications of the hard times that befell them during the time of the crusades. During the crusades, the peaceful Jews experienced real torture in the hands of those who claimed to be believers. The believers had no room for anyone who was not a member of their religion. The rights to worship didn’t exist by then and this led to the great suffering by the Jews. The first crusade of 1096 resulted to the destruction of all the Jewish communities that flourished in Rhine and Danube (John, 1).The second crusade took place in 1147 where Philip Augustus treated the Jews in France with extra severity. The third crusade of 1188 greatly affected the English Jews. Many trials took place in England and the end result was a ban for any Jew to be seen in England. After about three hundred and sixty five years the Jews were allowed to settle in the British Isles. The Jews also experienced other attacks and were greatly oppressed by the shepherd’s crusades of 1251 and 1320.

Persecution and Blood Libel

All the deeds that were conducted on the Jews were justified in the crimes laid against them. The Jewish were seen as being responsible for all the crime that was imputed to them all the years that they underwent the mistreatment. The Jews were also falsely accused of dishonoring the host which the believers believed to be representing the body of Christ. All the calamities that took place in this period were attached to the Jews and it was believed that were it not for them, there could have been great peace among the religions. The plundering raids of the Mongols were also laid on them. The Jews were also accused of poisoning the wells when the Black Death killed so many individuals in Europe. This was an invention meant to show how the Jewish were miserable. There existed only one court that claimed to be a protector to the Jewish and this was the Roman emperor of the German nation (John, 1).The emperor claimed that the Jews had the right to posses property and to be protected by the laws like any other individuals. The emperor could now present the Jews and all their property to cities or to princes. The court could now fight for the rights of the Jews and the greed, distrust, and envy that existed between communities could now be reduced. Also the undeserved suffering that the Jews went through could now be addressed and the innocent Jews could now escape prosecution. The court proceedings if well carried out could lead to the participation of different members of the community in communal work, help people leave like members of one family, and help reducing the harsh conditions that the Jewish were going through in the hands of the believers.

Expulsions

In all the countries in the western where Christianity was practiced, a gloomy of the Jews was portrayed and the Jews were viewed as the source of all evil. Many Jews were sent out of different places at different times. In 1290, almost all the Jews who resided in England were sent away, others were sent out of France in 1394. Also between 1350 and 1450, many Jews were sent out of large districts in Italy and Germany. These Jews who were driven out of the different places fled in different directions in search of peace and refuge (John, 1). They were looking for places where they could be tolerated and their faith could be respected. Most of them preferred the newly formed Slavic kingdoms. In the new Slavic kingdoms, their practices could be tolerated and many confessions were still tolerated. The rulers in these kingdoms made it possible for the Jews to enjoy true refuge and for a long time the Jews experienced great prosperity. The study of Talmud was very vigorous here and the Jews could now practice their faith without fear. The Jews learnt the language of the Germans and many of their customs and practices. However, they didn’t abolish their religion but continued to practice their faith. Up to date, the Jews practice the German customs that they learnt in the Slavic environment and they speak the German language whole heartedly. Also under Muslim rule especially in Pyrenean peninsula, the Jews received some good treatment where they were allowed to practice their faith with the required freedom

The efforts of the Jews to resist Christianity were faced with difficulties and although they made some advances, they couldn’t offer the real resistance to Christianity. The force of Christianity had advanced so much that the Jews efforts couldn’t have made great impact. The Arabic culture had greatly declined especially following the fall of the political power and the transformation of the Jews to the western cultures (John, 1).Most of the Jews who lived in the southern part o France and those who lived in the northern parts of Spain had accepted the western culture and this really weakened the Arabic culture. The Jews from Spain studied secular sciences with great vigor and eagerness to learn them just as they did with the bible and Talmud.

As the Jews continued to practice their faith, the church grew rapidly and with vigor to an extent that the Jews could no longer practice their faith with the full freedom. The church leaders were determined to transform all these Jews to the Christianity faith and they did all that they could to win them. The first step by the church to win these people was by offering religious writings to them and by religious disruptions on them. The attempt by the church to use writings and religious disruptions to weaken the Jewish faith did not prove very successful and due to the determination that the church had in weakening them, another option had to be adapted. This time round, the church made it really hard for the Jews to practice their civil rights. Many restrictions were made to the extent that the Jews were now completely separated from the Christians and they were to live in different parts in the cities (John, 1).Again, the Jews were required to wear some very embarrassing badges on their clothing. This led to great mistreatment of the Jews by their fellow citizens.

The Jews also became victims of hatred and scorn by their fellow citizens. Life for the Jews became harder and harder and in 1391, thirty thousands Jews were killed in Seville by a mob by the name the fanatical mob. In a bid to try and run for their lives, many Jews had no options other than to run for refuge in baptism. The Jews who were baptized however continued to practice their father’s faiths in secret. A severe interrogation was conducted where the rights and privacy of these Jews were greatly violated. This led to the discovery that some of the Jews who had been baptized still continued to practice their faith and were thus pretenders and not true Christians. Severe punishments were conducted on those who were discovered as being pretenders were taken to prison, tortured by the prison staff, and burnt to death (John, 1).This project continued for many years and was aimed at ensuring that there were no more unbelievers in Spain. In 1492, hundreds of thousands of the Jews were forced to leave Spain where they had spent their lives for over one thousand and five hundred years. After their departure from Spain, most of these Jews fled to Balkan Peninsula for refuge and here they enjoyed some peace. They also got an opportunity to practice the faith of their fathers without restrictions. Up to date, these exiles that were forced out of Spain still preserve the language that they learnt in Spain and surprisingly, these Jews in this land speak the Spanish language as their mother tongue.

The Enlightenment and Haskalah
During the revival period, a lot of learning and negotiations took place. Significant changes were especially found within the Jewish community. The enlightment was paralleled by the Haskalah movement where the Jews actively participated in seeing to it that the restrictive laws that were applied on then were abolished. These laws gave the Christian authorities total control over the Jews and this denied the Jews most of their civil rights. The movement also demanded that the Jews be integrated in the wider European community. The Jews students who attended classes got a chance to receive scientific and secular education in addition to the traditional religious education. Many Jews also got the opportunity to identify themselves with the Jewish religion as a result of the revival that took place in the study of the Jewish history (John, 1).Conservative movements and reform movements were born through the Haskalah and they all fought together in reviving the Jewish religion.  These movements also pushed for the assimilation of the Jewish culture in all the countries that the Jews lived. The process of reviving the Jewish religion wasn’t very smooth especially when some other movements started sprouting that preached completely the opposite of the Haskalah movement. The resistance amongst these movements led to the present divisions in the Jewish observance.
As numerous changes took place within the Jewish community, the outside world also experience equally important changes. The prosecution of the Jews had not been completely wiped in some European countries and in the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, several hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed. The napoleon law by napoleon offered the Jewish refuge in regard to equality. Those Jews who used to live the Jewish ghettos in Europe were invited by napoleon to leave these ghettos for the newly created political regimes that were more tolerant to the Jewish religion (John, 1).Many Jews migrated to the United States form Europe due to the existence of economic and social opportunities in the United States. Here they formed a large community that was free from the restrictions that the Jews used to experience in Europe.
The Jews in the United States
The existence of the Jews in the United States dates back to the seventeenth century. However, the number of Jews in the United States by the seventeenth century was very small. The first Jews to settle in the United States were shepherds from Spain and Portugal. In the nineteenth century, many Jews arrived in the United States from Germany and here, the Jews became merchants and shop owners. Most of the Jews that migrated to the United States did it due to the discrimination and prosecution that took place in countries such as Germany, Europe, etc. (John, 1).The severity of the mistreatment of many Jews in the United States in regard to their religion was less and thus most of them opted to run to the United States for refuge. In the early twentieth century, many Muslims arrived in the New York City and built several synagogues. The holocaust in Europe led to immigration of the Jews to the United States in large numbers such that the United States became the largest home of the Jews (Israel, 40).
Napoleon and the Jews
Napoleon made great contributions to the liberation of the Jews of the Western Europe (John, 1). The civil code helped the Jews against discrimination from other communities and the severity that was put on them as a result of their religion. Napoleon decided to offer to the Jews, freemasons, and Protestants liberty, fraternity, and equality (Joseph, 52). Some churches that had been closed for years were also opened during his regime. The code was supposed to offer the freedom of worship to all regardless of ones cultural and ethnic background. Napoleon also said that the state was to pay the salaries of the priests to these communities. His mission to liberate the Jews began when he was in Ancona and some people passed around him wearing some yellow bonnets and arm bands. Napoleon was amazed and immediately asked his officers why these people wore the bonnets and the arm bands. The officers told him that these people were Jews and the bonnets and the arm bands were used to identify them so that in the evening, they could return to the ghettos. Napoleon ordered that the Jews remove the yellow bonnets and arm bands with immediate effect. Napoleon also ordered the closing of the ghetto and he said that the Jews should be allowed to live wherever they wanted to live and should also practice their religion with full freedom. Napoleon made rules that addressed the way that the businesses and credit by the Jews were to be conducted. Earlier, the Christians were not allowed by the laws to practice usury. In effect, an assembly of Jewish notables was appointed that was to represent the Jews community in the process of bringing the Jews over to his policies. All the debts that were owed to the Jews were annulled.
The Holocaust
The prejudice against the Jews due their ethnic and cultural background continued in Europe even in the 1920s and the 1930s. Adolf Hitler was one of the anti-fanatics who could not change their mind regarding the treatment given to the Jews. In Germany, the case was even harder. Back in 1933 the then Nazis organized a boycott that was to protest against all the businesses owned by the Jews in Germany (Max & Gustav, 23).This was a one day boycott aimed at eliminating all Jews from active businesses. This mission was accomplished in 1939 when all the remaining small enterprises in Germany were closed in Germany. In almost all the cities where the Jews resided, they were concentrated in a very small region and were separated from the rest of the members of the cities.
During the First World War, the Nazis in Germany formalized all the borders and restricted the movement of the Jews within the different areas. Also, some ghettos were created for the Jews and the Jews were required to be confined within these ghettos and could not live in other regions within the city. These ghettos were even worse than prisons because after a short period of time, the Jews who resided in these ghettos died of hunger and disease. Executions continued where the Nazis and their collaborators executed these Jews. Concentration camps were identified in Germany itself where many Jews lost their lives and others experienced the worst conditions that the human rights cannot tolerate today (George, 2009).
Mass killings of the Jews that lived in the soviet territory took place during the invasion of the Soviet Union. All the communities that lived in the region were thrown out of the region, robbed off all their property, and shot at the edge of the ditches. In the year 1941, Hitler made a decision to kill in mass all the Jews that existed in Europe and completely eliminate their existence. In 1942 however, several Nazis met to discuss the issue of the Jews and come with a final solution of the Jewish question. The general government came up with a plan to deport all the Jews that occupied the ghettos and the territories that were greatly concentrated. The Jews were to be taken to the extermination camps also known as the Vernichtungslager. These seven extermination camps included: Belzec, Auschwitz, Chelmno, Maly, Majdanek, Sobibor, Trostenets, and TreblinkaII (George, 2009).
Holocaust Aftermath and the State of Israel
Jews were killed in large numbers during the German Nazis regime between 1941 and 1945. Millions of refugees were left homeless by the holocaust and its aftermath. Most the refugees that were left homeless were the Jews amongst who had lost almost all if not all of their family members and possessions (John, 1).These Jews also faced persistent rejection in their home countries due to their ethnic and cultural background. The Jews were still interested in finding a place where they could live freely without discrimination and restrictions. In their efforts, most of them found themselves joining the Zionist movement. The Zionists argued that the Jews refugees who lived in Germany and the Nazi had been abandoned by other countries and this led to the mass killing that took place on those Jews that resided here. In fact, they argued that if there was a Jews state during this period, the extent of the holocaust couldn’t have been as severe as it was. Zionism grew rapidly and a post-holocaust displacement strategy was adapted that led to the immigration of many Jews to the land that is currently known as the state of Israel.

Judaism today

Geography

The Jews today are spread all over the world. However most of the Jews communities are today found in the USA with an approximate population of about 5.7 million people. Most of them came to the United States from Spain where they were being killed for the culture. Also anti-Semitism and the prosecution of the Jews in Europe contributed to the immigration to the United States (John, 1).Most of the Jews came to the United States in the nineteenth century and they built synagogues for their God. Many Jews are also found in Western Europe and the Western Europe. The African continent hosts between two hundred thousands and three thousands Jews. The Jews exist in many communities but most of the Jews belong to the communities of the Israel and Palestine. Many Jews live in states where there are different other communities except Israel which is a Jewish state (Mary, 47). Most parts of North Africa and the Middle East were previously homes of the Jews but when Israel was established, many of the Jews immigrated to this state. However, some countries like Iran, morocco, and turkey also have some notable number of Jews. When king Shalmaneser deported some Jews to Kurdistan, some new traditions were developed by the Jews and the residents converted many Kurds to Judaism. Here, the equality of all people was observed and women now enjoyed much freedom. In fact, it is in this very land that the first female leader emerged.

The Goal of the Jewish Religion, Practices and Beliefs

The Jews still believe that the promised messiah hasn’t been sent. It is therefore a religion of waiting where they are waiting for the messiah who will come on earth to liberate them and also bring security and justice to the world (John, 1). Several changes have occurred in regard to the issue of the messiah and some Jews have accepted the messiah as a symbol and not somebody that will practically be sent to liberate them. However, a group of the Jews still believe that god will send them the messiah and they are still waiting for his coming. The Jews use the torah as their sacred and this greatly corresponds to the Christian’s Old Testament. The Talmud which was completed in the fifth century contains the oral law and the interpretations of the law.

The Jews celebrate many festivals and among them is the weekly Sabbath that is celebrated from the afternoon of Friday to Saturday afternoon (Raymond, 25). The different Muslim communities celebrate the Sabbath in the same way but strictness differs where some communities allow for secular activities to take place while others don’t. Many other festivals are celebrated once a year. Some of them include: Yom Kippur which is the Day of Atonement, Chanukah which corresponds to the Christian’s Christmas. Other festivals designate the time when the Jews were allowed to leave Egypt and their exodus. Others are celebrated once in a lifetime such as the circumcision of the boy child when it is eight days old. This acts as a remembrance of the covenant that god made to Abraham. Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah marks a time when the boys enter adulthood at the age of thirteen and the girls at the age of twelve respectively. The burial of a dead Jew takes place with immediate effect from hi death and the family starts Shiva which is a seven day mourning period.

The Jews religion has some regulations and prohibitions that mainly cover on food (John, 1). These rules are seen by other communities as being complex. For example, the Jews are not allowed to eat pork and shellfish which all other communities do. Eating these diets is a sin according to the Jews laws and it is prohibited. Concerning the slaughtering of animals, any animal should be killed by a Shehitah where the accepted method is cutting the throat of the animal and leaving the conscious animal to bleed to death. Some types of food such as milk and meat shouldn’t be kept together.

Since time immemorial, the Jews are supposed to pray at least three times every day which are performed in remembrance of the times that sacrifices were made in the temple in Jerusalem (John, 1). Shaharith is the name given to the Morning Prayer, Minhah designates the afternoon prayer, while Maarib is the evening prayer. The Jews up to date believe that everything in the world has its origin with God. The Jews are therefore required to recite some benedictions before they take on any events. The torah is divided into sections such that within a year, it is possible for the individuals to have gone through the torah. The rabbi leads the congregation in reading each section of the torah everyday and after the reading, a prayer session follows from the prayer book.

Organization

The congregation of the Jews is led by a rabbi who closely relates to the priest in Christianity. This leader in elected by the congregation and except in orthodox where a woman cannot assume the position of a rabbi, the rabbi can be either a man or a woman. Prayers are led by a trained individual by the name cantor during the services. Many activities take place in the synagogue which is a holy place for the Jews. Religious activities, religious services, and community activities take place in the synagogue (John, 1). The orthodox is very strict on the way that activities in the synagogue are conducted and even in the synagogues, women are not supposed to sit on the same side with men. The Jewish religion allows its members to perform some rituals in their homes as well. Some yearly festivals, Sabbath rituals, and the daily prayers can be performed at home.

Holy Places

There were some discontinuations in Judaism especially during the Diaspora which led to little development of some holy places by the Jews. Even up to today, the Jewish who live in the European countries still feel in exile. They have a mentality of migration and they still migrate to the places where the Jews exist in large numbers. The dominating holy place for the Jews is Jerusalem and this is mainly formed by the temple that was destroyed (John, 1). The western wall that remained after the destruction is referred to as the most holy place in the world (Helen, 240). Another significant holy place for the Jews is Hebron in Palestine where the remains of Abraham were buried. The place in Mount Sinai where the Jews and God made a covenant is also important to their faith. The oldest synagogue is found in Tunisia in Africa and is regarded as a holy place.

Conclusion

The history of the Jewish religion dates its way back to the time of Abraham. Abraham is regarded as the fore father of the Jewish religion and although he did not discover God himself, he was called by this very God and sent to a foreign land which he didn’t know. God made a covenant with Abraham and promised him many descendants. The mark of the covenant was circumcision which the Jewish religion practices up to date

When the Hebrews cried to God to liberate them from slavery in Egypt, God heard their cry and sent Moses to guide them to the Promised Land. A long journey that took them forty years was successful though there were complications on diseases and hunger. In Mount Sinai, God made a covenant with Moses whose contents included the loyalty that the Israelites needed to observe on god who saved them from bondage in Egypt, the prohibition of the worship of idols, and it also contained festivals and rituals that the Israelites needed to observe as a celebration of God’s provision to them. In Canaan, the Israelites were led by judges though the region was at the moment dominated by the worship of idols. The congregation made many alters which were regarded as the holy places for God where the Israelites could make sacrifices and worship this God who liberated them from slavery. The tribe of the Levites produced many kings and a house was built for the maintenance of the Ark of the Covenant.

When they reached the Promised Land, the Israelites requested for a king to help them conquer their enemies. Prophet Samuel appointed Saul as the first king of Israel. Saul was succeeded by King David whose reign helped solve the differences that existed between Saul and the prophet Samuel. . David combined both the political and religious authority to his house and the descendants and all other kings were to rule from Jerusalem. Solomon who was a young son of David succeeded his father at the age of eighteen. Solomon acted as king of Israel for about forty years and during this period, the monarchy of the Hebrews got the highest appraisal. During the half of his leadership, Solomon made great achievements but in the second half, dominated which resulted from his intermarriages. The worst happened when he married the daughter of the Egyptian king Pharaoh.

When Solomon’s role came to an end, the nation split into the northern kingdom known as Israel and the southern kingdom known as Judah. The leadership of the roman rulers of Judea led to the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem by the Romans when they defeated the Judeans. Most of the artifacts that were preserved in the temple including the menorah were also stolen. A number of laws were passed by the eastern Roman Empire that took away all civil rights of any individuals who were unbelievers. The existence of such unbelievers was also complicated by the passed laws and most the unbelievers had no other options than running away to rescue their lives.

The Jews experienced the harshest conditions in the early middle ages. This was as a result of the church laws that didn’t recognize the non-believers as humans and regarded their humanity with much discrimination. In Europe and Germany, many Jews lost their lives and those who remained had to immigrate to different regions where they could be rescued. During the time of the crusades the Jews were tortured and falsely accused and blamed for the sufferings that they endured. Today, the Jews are spread different parts of the world but the largest population is found in the United States. Most of the festivals that that were practiced by the Jews in the early days are still practiced today. A few holy places for the Jews also exist.

references

John, G. (2009), 1. History of Judaism-Religion facts. Retrieved from http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/history.htm on 07-August-2009.

Israel, S. (2000). Jewish History Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years. Pluto: Pluto press, 12-89.

Louis, J. (1995). The Jewish Religion: A Companion. New York: Barnes & Noble Publishers, 341-356.

Raymond, P. S. (2000). A Short History of the Jewish People. India: Karen. A Publishers, 23-26.

Stephen, C. R. (1993). A Jews Archive from Old Cairo. Israel:  Jewish Publication Societies, 231-245.

Max, N & Gustav, G. (1996). Zionism and Anti-Semitism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 23-34.

Mary, A. (1912). The Promised Land. Israel: National Yuddish Book Centre, 45-48.

Charles, F. K & Jeremiah, W. J. (1002). The Beginning of Israel History. New York: Scribner’s Sons, 231-237.

Helen, C. N. (2004). Israel: A Country Study. Washington: Federal Research Division. 238-243.

Joseph, S. L. (1996). Napoleon and His Rule. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 45-67.

Bill Maher at his best going after religion on Scarborough Country. Making some VERY good points. twitter.com billbone.co.uk
Video Rating: 4 / 5

Question by Morgono: RELIGION??????????????????????????????????????
For History we are learning about how religion has formed the world and what damage it has done to the world. I keep thinking that if religion is so important to everyone why don’t we embrace everyone else religion? Why does just one persons religion have to be right? I mean i see arguments about it everyday. But I am asking you, the people of the web, what is your stand point on religion?

Best answer:

Answer by mike
There is only one way to Heaven and it isn’t religion. Praise the Lord.

Know better? Leave your own answer in the comments!

Beginning of the end of times

What is prophecy?  What is the end of times? Where did it all start?

Prophecy is the prediction of events of past and future. It involves many of the articles we have posted on our website. It is an integrated factor of cause and effect, astral travel, and space-time conception.

The cause and effect is what leads to pattern of behavior, and planting a seed is just one early phase of eating a fruit in a foreseen future. Just like getting born is but a phase for occupying a space at a specific time on this planet in this dimension to purify the source of our life energy enabling it to move on towards another cycle that leads to an ultimate eternal truth at the end of a beginning of an un-foretold journey of all living souls alike…

Astral travel is a primary phase for after life existence, the self and the soul are but one entity under two different categories. The Self is a self (an Astro body) as long as it is still attached to the physical body, and it becomes a soul once it is detached after death. Sleep is what is known as the small death, because and as we mentioned in one of our previous articles, it involves astral travel.

Coma is also another form of astral wondering. When an individual falls into coma, his Self/soul departs from his physical body due to variety of reason and it either refuses to go back to its shell for escaping body pain experience or simply by getting lost in limbo and not finding its way back home to its physical body shell…

Space-time is what makes everything possible. Space-time means different dimensions, different cycles, different history in past, present and future perpetual.

Prophecy is the result of all above mentioned factors combined. And prophecy falls under different categories and criteria, major and minor prophecies, levels and sublevels, the divine is the highest of all.

Prophecy of End of Times is foretold ever since history started recording our walks and endeavors in this cycle of life. It predicts an ultimate confrontation between the light and the dark side.  Good and evil. It is Armageddon.

Thoth in his emerald tablets foresaw or predicted Armageddon, prophets and messengers prophesized it, Daniel is one of them.

The revelation of Daniel details the future Armageddon and hints to its time in future events, some of such events have become current in accordance to biblical researchers who studied, analyzed and interpreted the revelation and other prophecies related to it.

End of Time is actually one phase of beginning the end of this cycle of space-time. And it is not what most common laymen believe.  There is the antichrist scene, the Gog and Magog, followed by series of events leading to beginning of the end.

There seems to be a need for mankind to be reminded of his destiny so that we may prepare ourselves for the final transition.  The emerald tablets explain it in a fascinating way. Yet all Holy Books emphasizes on the important role of altering our pattern of behavior and focus on the next phase which is in the next cycle and after death.  It is, as if we are now in elementary school, and our secondary schooling is supposed to start after our transition…

The aim of writing this article is to suggest a simple explanation to why we live and for what purpose we should strive.

We are providing you the mental peace through zen meditation.com with various courses and techniques like Meditation Courses, Online meditation course, How to meditate, meditation retreats, Meditation technique etc. Z Meditation is a systematic deep work of inquiring into the conditioning’s that are hidden in the unconscious regions of your mind. There is a possibility for you to completely eliminate suffering from your life. Freedom, Bliss and Awareness are not mere esoteric words. You can experience them as your true identities.

Z Meditation Online Course is a beautifully effective solution to overcome this problem. Sitting at home and doing all your daily chores, there is a possibility of learning and practicing the deepest principles of freedom – freedom from all deep rooted stories, illusions, conditionings and agitations. Using these principles, in the past thirteen years, thousands of students have been able to transcend their deep-rooted habit patterns and see refreshing light for their lives. The effects of this work are literally mind blowing!

In the Z Meditation Spiritual Retreats, the technique used is rational and analytical. You learn to detach from your mind’s patterns and systematically root out the roots of turbulence using deep inquiry. You employ radiant and rational mantras to get established in your pristine glory. The silence helps a lot in deep contemplation and integration.

Most of us here have forgotten smiling. Who has the time to care and share? We have got so much lost in the un-necessities and urgency of life that the truly important values have been forgotten. Our mental state is clearly reflected on our faces. Why has this happened? Do we want to get back to the state of childlike carefree-ness and abandon? Do we have time to reflect and take corrective actions? Do we understand that the best changes about life are internal changes? Let us make one thing very clear to ourselves – if we don’t do something about our minds now, if we are not proactively trying to lift it out of its current state, it will always remain like that. It will not change and there is no magic wand that can change it overnight.

Z Meditation is taught in two levels. The first level is a fifteen-day and the second is a eight-day silent retreat held at Z Meditation Center in India. In the first level of learning, one gets all the basic knowledge of mind and meditation. One gets the knowledge and practice of the Deep DeConditioning Inquiry and Radiant Mantras. In the second level, the questions of Deep DeConditioning Inquiry deepen further and the strongest false beliefs are rooted out from the mind. The second level helps in realizing the Self that is the source of the mind and the universe.

Benefits of Z Meditation
When you sincerely practice Z Meditation, it can lead to the following uplifting results:
•    Effortless sailing in life: You now laugh at yourself that you used to consider problems as problems. They become useful opportunities of self growth.
•    Not a victim any more: You refuse to let anybody shatter your peace and fulfillment.
•    Understanding: Instead of feeling bad about the attitude of others, you rather understand the platforms from where people are behaving.
•    Inner fulfillment: You realize your fulfillment in the silence of the mind and in non-chasing.
•    Openness in relationship: You don’t have to please anybody anymore. You are honest and loving and don’t have fears of loss etc.
•    Beautiful Mornings: You wake up every day with a smile and look forward to Living it.
•    Compassion even for the unknowns: Your heart is full of love. It is Love now and not doting or attachment.
•    No judging: You prefer understanding to criticizing and judging. You understand that the latter is very harmful for your happiness.
•    Peace: You don’t get angry or frustrated anymore. Sometimes, you may need to show anger, which is like a line drawn on the surface of water. It vanishes in no time.
•    Control: You are not impulsive and have perfect control over your timings.
•    No arguments: You don’t need to or want to prove anything to anybody. You are not defensive anymore.
•    No Superiority: You are so busy in self growth that you don’t have to time to think what others are thinking about you.
•    No Inferiority: You understand that money or status or power or cars or houses or jobs have nothing to do with the state of fulfillment. If you have them, it is OK. If you don’t, it is also OK.
•    Health: It is not only your mental health, it is also your physical health also that improves and you don’t have to go to doctors anymore.
•    Happiness: You give yourself ten on ten on happiness and fulfillment as you do what you ought to and you don’t do what you don’t ought to.
•    Sleep: You sleep like a log and work like a horse. In short, you are a very happy person.

If you sincerely feel that you need a strong tool to handle the agitations and suffering of your mind and you are ready to do hard work for fourteen days, you can sign up for the Z Meditation Online Course.

For more Details visit our site linked below:

Z Meditation Centre
Shivam Marg, McLeod Ganj
h.p, h.p 176219, India

<a rel=”nofollow” onclick=”javascript:_gaq.push(['_trackPageview', '/outgoing/article_exit_link']);” href=”">meditation retreat</a>

Question by Alice: meditation?
okay, I am trying to connect more with the spiritual world and other things. Meditation is good for this as well as finding inner peace and things like that. Some things I have read told me to meditate for half an hour every day, but every time I try, I end up getting bored long before the half hour is up. I enjoy meditation as it calms me down, but I have a lot of trouble just concentrating on nothing or my breating. Does anyone have any advice for my meditation?

Also, does anyone have any tips on astral projection? I’ve tried but haven’t gotten very far with it. Has anyone achieved it and if so, what did you do?

Veni, vidi, excessi!
Alice

Best answer:

Answer by kt
i do it all the time you have to train you mind to focus on your breathin

What do you think? Answer below!

8 Minute Meditation: Quiet Your Mind. Change Your Life.

• ISBN13: 9780399529955
• Condition: New
• Notes: BUY WITH CONFIDENCE, Over one million books sold! 98% Positive feedback. Compare our books, prices and service to the competition. 100% Satisfaction Guaranteed

In recent years, mainstream Americans have begun to come around to meditation in a big way-and scientific studies are suggesting that the physical and mental benefits are solid and real. But to many, it remains something mystical and inaccessible…and spiritually-oriented tomes on the market don’t do much to make it easier.

As interest in meditation continues to grow, this book offers a simple, no-nonsense program to help beginners experience reduced stress and increased focus in only

List Price: $ 13.95

Price:

What do you think of when you hear the words – ‘Mind Control’? Does it sound supernatural or something that you can achieve? Most of the people think it as something of the supernatural. The truth is that we all can actually control our minds. It is we who run the mind and feed it with whatever we want to. Controlling the mind is in our hands. What are the best ways to control your mind?

‘Why the hell should I be interested in controlling my mind? Wouldn’t it be nicer if I could control the minds of others?’ If you’re thinking on similar lines, you’re wrong. Simply because you cannot control others’ minds unless you can control yours! And if you’re thinking of world-accession by controlling the minds of others – you, in all probability are watching too many sci-fi movies!

Best Mind control Techniques

Observation: What is it that separates you from James Bond? Yes, it may be the gadgets and the girls, but most importantly he is a learner and a keen observant. Yes, you need to be an observant to learn to control your mind – look around; stop seeing. Start observing!

Leadership: The best of the leaders surely know the best of the mind control techniques. Look at them – they are so popular. Don’t you think that they can control people’s minds? Give it a thought – better, think like a leader does.

Concentration: The people who can control their mind well are the top businessmen, leaders, and sportspersons to name a few groups. What they surely have in common is a method by which they can control their minds. If it weren’t for that, they would not have been where they are today. Concentration and focus is the key.

Winner: Think like a winner does. He does not fear losing – he takes it simply as a part of the greater learning curve. A winner is the most positive person you’d ever seen. Be a winner.

Positive Attitude: This is important because unless you have it, you do not know how to do it. The more you’re in the dark, the more you become prone to becoming a failure.

Exercise: Most people think wrongly that if they just eat well and concentrate on what they are doing, they can achieve whatever they want. But an important point is that if they are unfit themselves – they cannot take the stride for the strive. Exercising your mind and body is of utmost importance.

Yoga: Finally, this centuries old all-pervasive knowledge of Yoga is what is required if you want absolute control over your mind. It employs the most scientific postures and ‘kriyas’ that will help you perfect the mind control techniques.

It is all in the mind –it is not a popular advertisement gimmick. It is a process that every individual must go through.

Find More Mind Control Articles
Question by dafs: mind control?
my school team is a really good team.(women)
but sometimes we just get consecutive breakdowns and lose to teams taht we could win against.
like once we start to get behind, we cant catch up because all of us start to get nervous and we get angry.
i want to know some mind control tips that could help us win more next season.

Best answer:

Answer by mike j
Well I think it’s mostly just your body start to slow down as game goes on, I think you can suggest to your coach to increase the viste to weight room to get into better conditionings.

Know better? Leave your own answer in the comments!

The Silva Mind Control Method

• ISBN13: 9780671739898
• Condition: New
• Notes: BRAND NEW FROM PUBLISHER! BUY WITH CONFIDENCE, Over one million books sold! 98% Positive feedback. Compare our books, prices and service to the competition. 100% Satisfaction Guaranteed

List Price: $ 7.99

Price:

Students taking theology and religion write different types of religion papers. For example, the students write research papers, term papers and essays. Most students do not know how to write religion papers. This  makes  it  difficulty  for  the  students  to  include features  of  religion  and  science  when  writing  religion  papers. Also, the  students  do not  have  enough  time  to  carry  out  research  when  writing  religion  papers. The  students  are  supposed  to   research  on  features  of  religion  and  science  and  include  them  in  the   religion  papers. Very few students are capable of carrying out research on features of science and religion. This  has  affected  the  performance  of  the  students  as  they  do not  write  papers  that  meet   instructors   needs. Most  instructions  require  students   writing  religion  papers  to  incorporate   features  of  religion  and  science  in  their  work. The  instructors  grade  the  religion  papers  according  to  the   content  of  the  paper. Some students  do not  include  all  the  relevant  content  about  religion  and  science  in  their  papers. Such  students  get  low  marks   as  the  religion  papers  do not  meet  instructors  requirement. Students who  include  the  relevant   content  about  religion  and  science  in  their   religion  papers  get  high  grades.

Science and religion differ in many ways. Also, science and religion are similar in some ways. First,  science   and  religion  differ  because   science   depends  on  different  methodologies   from  religion to  explain  the   existence  of  life   on  the  earth. Students   are supposed to show the difference between religion and science when writing religion papers. This will ensure the papers are inline with instructor’s requirement.

In addition, the   students should include different features of science and religion in their   religion papers. For  example,  students  should  include  the  different  methods  used  to  provide  ideas  or  concepts   in  science  and  religion. Religion and science have common features. For   example, religion and science search for truth. Though, science does not really search for truth, the concepts in science have some truth. On the other hand, religion searches for truth.

Different religions like Christians should have a clear understanding about Christian beliefs and values. Students  should  how  science and  religion   differ  in  search  for  truth  in  their  religion  papers. Further, the   students should   show how   both   science   and religion   search for more understanding on certain concepts. Also, they   should   show   how science   and   religion exercise   faith in different ways. For example, scientists   exercise   faith when   carrying out experiments. The use of   experiments in science is based on faith. The scientists should have faith in   the constancy of nature. Various religions exercise faith. The students should   explain how faith    contributes to Christianity and   science. In addition, the   students   should   include testability as a feature in science and religion.

Scientists find it hard to explain some   concepts. Also, religion finds it hard to explain some things. The  students  should  show   why   the   scientists  and   religion  find  it  difficulty  to    explain  some  concepts   in  the  religion  papers. For example, scientists find it difficulty to explain   evolution of   organisms. Also, religion finds it difficulty   to explain occurrence of pain and suffering. The  students  should  ensure  the   religion  papers    include  the  relevant  features  and  they  are  supported  using  the  relevant  content. This will help students   score high grades   in their religion papers. Also, the  students  will  be  able  to  offer  quality  religion  papers   and ,hence  meet  instructors  requirement.

Clip from Dress to Kill
Video Rating: 4 / 5

Related Religion Articles
Question by Benjammin: religion ?
i just got back from a methodist camp. I am agnostic. while i was there i got to thinking about religion. i am just so confused at what to believe. this isnt really a question, but i wanted to know if anyone feels like i do.

Best answer:

Answer by tur b
I don’t feel the way you do, sorry.

Add your own answer in the comments!

Last year the world economy grew by 5% [1], the fastest in recent years, led by extraordinary growth in China and a very high growth in countries in the world, most of the other third. United States and Japan also have very strong growth, despite the West’s most pathetic performance. Can the good times last? Or global economic crisis?

Global economic boom has been rejected by two factors.
This has been driven by the progressive liberalization of world trade and liberalization of the world’s major economies such as China and India third. Level of average rates in countries such as China have been reduced from 41% in 1992 to 6% in 2004. greater liberalization of world trade has increased the volume of international division of labor and help increase growth in the world to remain whole and especially in third world countries. Especially if trade is not over, this factor will continue to help the world economy to grow. Another reason for the increase in economic growth that appears is the free market reforms, carried out by countries like China will be one of the most damaging communist system in human history (which is said to be many) into a virtual paradise of capitalism “to seem not exhausted resources work cheap, but competent and well being of no country and no union, and many other developing countries that free market reforms of the various stages of radicalism.
But there are also dark side of the current boom. This is driven by cheap money policy the Federal Reserve. And not just the U.S. economy depends on this foundation is not stable. Most of the rest of the world also rely on cheap money policy of the Federal Reserve. This is in part because of the world has become increasingly dependent on the growth of trade surplus with the United States created by excess demand in the U.S. is produced by Bold and the policies of that is because the U.S. dollar bearish pressure for lower interest rates to mimic other central banks cheap money policy Fed to prevent their currencies rising too quickly against the U.S. dollar value. In addition, global economic growth is also preferred structural problems in Europe and Japan.
To better understand the global economic outlook, we must analyze in detail the strengths and weaknesses of the four major strength of the global economy: the U.S., the European Union, Japan and China. As the prime mover of the global movement of global economy, make sense to focus on them. There are some big developing countries like India, Brazil and Russia could also be discussed.

We start with the U.S. economy. with strong U.S. economy is that it is still one of the more market-oriented economy in the world, with the level perpajakan and regulations were much lower than in European nations and Japan. The company is also developing financial markets and institutions of higher education. This is what has contributed to America is the richest country in the world (apart from small Luxembourg) and the results are better than most rich countries to another. Although some U.S. politicians to destroy the benefits will still be a positive factor in coming years.
Achilles heel of the U.S. economy relying heavily on cheap loans. Five years ago, the U.S. experienced the largest price bubble of the 1920s with valuasi technology shares, the ridiculously quality. bubble was driven by rapid expansion of money and was accompanied by a sharp increase in private sector debt and deficit balance running transactions, which they reached a new record.

Level of private sector financial savings, which usually fluctuates counter-cyclical, which fluctuated between a surplus of around 5% of GDP in the recession and around zero for a booming, has terlempar into negative territory at -6% of GDP.

When the bubble burst in the spring of 2000, the U.S. economy emerged as the background, set to a severe recession. But the recession in 2001 following the stock price bubble Meledaknya very light. Avoid a severe recession all by mixing a combination of tax cuts and increased production, and wound more quickly and higher interest rate in U.S. history, the real interest rate declined to negative territory for the first time since 1970.
But this success to avoid a deep recession that occurred at the cost of maintenance and actually worsen the imbalance that created a recession in 2001. The end of the stock market bubble followed by the creation of another bubble, this time at home. Usually for a recession, and private sector debt declining household and business balance sheets of the net savings quality. But while the balance was restored after a sharp decline in business investment and profits of a family record in spending spree has never happened before, owed more households than ever before, and save up to approximately 5
As a result, budget deficit and domestic production of oats, this time against current musical trends of the recession, the deficit rose to the level of transactions running high, the private sector debt continued to rise while the number of private sector financial savings in fixed unprecedented weakness in the recession of that was even in booming. And when the economy recovered from recession, debt accumulation, of course, have increased levels.
So, besides the fact that too high voting shares less than five years and now a strong company balance sheet, basic ketimpangan in the U.S. economy is actually greater now than then. This makes the U.S. economy vulnerable to crisis. And this imbalance even larger and more meaningful for the politicians and the central bank to reduce the crisis will be more limited because interest rates are far lower and the financial deficit, not surplus.
So, when they come from the crisis? The exact date of introduction is not possible, of course. This will be the base when the current rise, super low interest rate that is, delete, and / or imbalances become so great that fall under its own weight. You can also say that it is not possible in the future. Although there are some signs that the housing boom started late, this will be offset by the expected further increase in business investment.
With the level of company profits at near record levels remain well below the historical average and business investment remain below the historical average, it means that the company not only CASH will be required to finance the large investments without much external capital, but more important than the profit on the investment level is very high, so there is a strong incentive to increase investment.

The decrease is likely to contribute to a stable increase in the deficit and debt transactions run the private sector.
So in conclusion, if we can be quite optimistic about the U.S. economy in the short term because of the explosion and likely long-term business investment because the economic structure is relatively fixed market-oriented, making the imbalance created by the Fed’s cheap money policy of a potential severe recession and a half-term prospects . But can, if strong possibility of recession will cause a reaction in the form of highly damaging protectionist, higher tax and production, or high inflation may cause long-term outlook is more pessimistic.

Europe for a long time left behind the United States and other countries in growth. Or, at least. European Union as a whole course, there are large differences between European countries. This is especially the countries three major euro zone, Germany, France and Italy, which had grown bleak. British and Spanish had a stronger growth, while Ireland and Luxembourg have been growing really unique. But like Germany, France and Italy account for more than two-thirds of the economy in the euro area, while Ireland and Luxembourg are the two smallest countries in the euro zone, their economy is more or less identical with the development across Europe.

It’s clear that the vast myth causes economic problems in Europe are too tight monetary policy of the ECB. This claim repeatedly made by politicians in various countries and the European press of business establishments. And Larry Kudlow even accused the ECB to carry out the land “fire deflationary” monetary policy. But this reputation as a kind of fortress ECB money (unfortunately) completely wrong. Has exceeded the ECB’s own target for monetary growth and inflation. During his 6 years, M3 has grown average of 6.7% compared with the speed of growth of 4.5% and consumer price inflation has average charge of 2.2% v target of below 2%. At the end of 2004, negative interest rates in the short term, consumer price inflation was 2.4%, M3 growth of 6.4% and growth in private sector debt 6.9%. The reason behind the ECB’s false reputation as a stronghold of money that appears to be a false syllogism “weak growth is a result of tight monetary policy. Europe has weak growth. That is why Europe must have a tight monetary policy.” But as the first policy is false, so is the conclusion of the syllogism.

However, the cause of weak growth in Europe was two, the highest percentage on the roots.
One, government spending and the high administrative burden is much more expensive than in the United States and China.
Second, the quickly aging population in Europe as a whole and especially in Germany and Italy. In countries such as Germany, France and Italy, the retirement age of 55 music and 60 years. With the average age in Germany and Italy are expected to almost 55 in 2050, this would mean that there will be much older than the older pensioners in the population of working age. In combination with the large number of working age living on welfare, it means the collapse of fiscal and large decline in the supply of labor and capital. This process took the victims, especially in Italy and Germany. Of course, the aging population need not be a problem for the economy, with the conditions that increase retirement age average in relation to the Middle Ages. But retirement has proved very difficult. When the French government to raise the age for workers pensiun 55-57,5 publicity in the summer of 2003, causing major protests and strikes, and all the politicians trying to increase the retirement age will have the same large protest and strike, and probably will opt out of the office by National welfare addicts.
But unless the European politicians to take drastic action to stop the demographic explosion, increasing employment opportunities and increase the retirement age, this problem will get worse with time.

Germany recently to take some temporary measures to reduce the administrative burden is high and unemployment benefits, but these measures may not be enough to revive the German economy. European economic outlook is pessimistic. Unless European politicians dramatically change their welfare policies can be static outside of Europe to continue to decline relative to both the short and long term. And all the economic decline in Asia and the United States and further decline in the dollar could damage European export market, industry, and thus eliminate the only source of Europe has until now.
Europe is a bright point for the incorporation of East European economies are relatively free market, where tax rates are very low not only compared to Western Europe, but also compared with the United States. Not surprisingly, this resulted in the rapid economic growth. And the countries of Eastern Europe has become part of the European Union will support overall growth. In addition, the increased tax competition from Eastern Europe is beginning to get some Western European countries to lower taxes, particularly taxes on companies will increase their competitiveness. If for example in Eastern Europe to encourage countries in Western Europe to lower taxes and slash social production, so the prospect can be more clear. But unfortunately, there seems very likely.

Japan has long been a star rose in the world economy, it’s more than Europe and America. But after a big share in Japan Bubble hotel in the late 1980s upset the Japanese economy has experienced a stagnation in the growth rate is lower than in Europe.
This is mainly because the banking system has been hampered by the large mass jammed credit. Japanese authorities have been willing to consider short-term pain associated with the liquidation of credit to be stuck and prolonged stagnation. Japan also share a lot of problems in Europe.

While Japan has a much lighter tax burden than Europe, the burden of administration, if the worse. And flexible economic structures created by the administrative burden redistribusi quality has become a source of inefficient companies is made more difficult by the inflationary boom of the United States. For this reason, the administrative burden of creating more problems for Japan now than before 1990.

Japan also faces demographic problems even worse in Europe. Japan has more people aged 65 or more people under 20 years, only Italy as well. And what is worse. Because there is less than 24 ½ million Japanese people aged under 20, while some 35 million, half of the 45-64 year age group, it means that Japan’s working age will be reduced by more than 11 million or 14% over the next 20 years, whereas population is expected to fall only a few million. As in Europe, this will make a huge tax burden and reduce the supply of labor and capital, unless the retirement age. Which in turn guarantees a rate of growth rather sad.
One bright point in the Japanese economy grew in China. China’s geographical proximity means that the Japanese media to take advantage of the increasing Western economic division of labor in this country. China has followed the United States as the largest trading partner. But Japan’s recent export growth to China saw a sharp decrease as a result of successful efforts by the Chinese government restrict credit. But in the long run, Japan should be preserved to benefit more from China to the United States and Europe.
Another thing positive is that Japan will also benefit from the private sector has a lot to reduce the burden of debt, debt in the lowest level in more than 30 years. This means that Japanese companies do not risk another economic bust as a result of tight credit conditions.
Its medium term, however, is overshadowed by the crisis in the U.S. and its impact on China and the world. And fall of demographic and labor resources and capital reduction, which means increased load on the economy.

Since Deng Xiaoping, China began economic liberalization and as a result has developed highly unusual. Having been damaged for centuries by the English and Japanese imperialists, the destruction of civil war, and the 30 year mark of communism Mao Zedong, China has started to regain former status as an economic power.
According to official statistics on GDP by kurs dikonversi this time, the Chinese economy is still smaller than the British. But this figure is actually from China Camping measure, because no matter that the price was much lower in China than in the United. In all indirect indicators of economic size, China’s economy is far greater than English. China, for example. Batubara largest customer, fertilizer and other commodities and second-largest oil customer (the U.S.) It is also the third largest trading partner in the world after the United States and Germany. China is clearly far more important for the global economy and that United will become more important in the future.

There are many reasons to believe that China will continue the extraordinary growth of the speed of at least the next decade. Not well, no unions and a large labor supply and savings, “communist” China is a paradise for capitalists. And as shown in the success of ethnic Chinese business in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore and throughout Southeast Asia, China has a strong entrepreneurial spirit. And communism is no longer producing this enormous growth potential.

Although the estimated number of farmers in China vary widely depending on who you ask, even the lowest estimate calculates that at least half of the 1.3 billion Chinese people are farmers. If the relative size of the agricultural sector up to Western standards, this means that more than 600 million people will go to work in industry and services. And 600 million people is twice the total population of the United States.

Combining with the fact that China may be the highest level of savings in the world and thus can make the necessary investment for continued high growth rates. As the Economist pointed rejection, a high level of savings is largely due to the lack of well-being of a country that compels people to save if you have enough money, for example, pay medical bills.
Of course there is the potential danger for China, which can at least temporarily derail the strong growth. The rapid transition in the state could cause social unrest. China’s banking system looks very fragile because the very terbebani the jammed credit. In addition, China is too dependent on exports to the United States. Chinese exports to the U.S. last year was 12% of GDP and bilateral trade surplus was 10% of GDP.

This makes China vulnerable to U.S. economic recession. First, the negative direct effect on exports, and second, because the Chinese might be blamed for the crisis, which may create a serious blow proteksionis would damage the Chinese economy. A yuan revaluation would be a good way for China to reduce reliance on exports to the United States. Though it created a series of short-term negative effects in terms of reduced exports and reduce the value of American assets will also reduce the cost of imports. And most importantly, China proteksionis well as reduce the risk of action alleged “rigging” the eyes money (as if there is any currency that is not manipulated at this time) will be lost, and reduce the damage caused by actions such as proteksionis higher dollar value of China’s economy made by the revaluation will reduce the relative importance of exports to the United States.
On the other hand, China faces potential conflict with the United States in the rebel separatist group “” Taiwan region.
Prospects for China is very good, as long as they can avoid some hazards mentioned above.
This means that even short-term prospects for China’s economy is strong, carry serious dangers of every crisis the U.S. economy, which in turn raises the risk of social instability and a fragile banking system. If China achieved through this crisis without breakage of the civil war, a reversal of market reforms, or a dramatic increase protectionist west or the problem of war in Taiwan, but you should be able to continue the impressive growth.
History of several large developing countries such as Brazil, India and Russia, have many similarities with China, and also began to liberalize their economies, which have helped to increase their growth rates. Its potential can not be as great as that done by the Chinese because their culture is less inclined to save and entrepreneurial culture as China and Brazil and Russia are far smaller population and a contraction in the case of Russia. India is also affected by the unofficial caste system that makes it more difficult to communicate the success of the Chinese population. Russian economy, and Brazil is a highly dangerous dependence on oil and agriculture, respectively. However, many other developing countries tend to grow in importance.

For the world economy as a whole, we should in the short term they hope to extend the current boom, but at the expense of worsened global economic imbalances. American debt burden will continue to increase, while the whole world will grow increasingly dependent on exports to the United States. In the medium term, a sharp increase in real interest rates and / or reduce confidence in the U.S. will cause a recession, which spread throughout the world in terms of decline in the value of exports to the United States, both for the direct reduction of the demand created by the economic downturn and the effect of indirect from the dollar to fall and may direct the steps proteksionis. This will contribute much worse than the internal problems of the world.

For the longer term we may see major changes in the global economy with other developed countries and the increasing importance of China, while Europe and Japan will gradually decline in importance. Due to economic difficulties in Europe, it seems unlikely the euro will replace the dollar as world reserve currency. But can the long-term perspective (ie a few decades from now) the Chinese yuan yuan assume that role when the full conversion and when China becomes the largest economy in the world. Visit: BlogBazaar.net

John Clarke and Bryan Dawe calculate the cost of the European debt crisis – A comedy routine. It may seemed hilarious but this is actually what’s happening. Without all the financial jargon, any layman can understand what is happening to the current economy crisis. How can broke economies lend money to other broke economies who haven’t got any money because they can’t pay back the money the broke economy lent to the other broke economy and shouldn’t have lent it to them in the first place because the broke economy can’t pay back?

More World Economy Articles
Question by clulesschristian: World Economy!?
What type of impact do you think the United States economy has on the world economy? Please explain your answer.

Best answer:

Answer by myacc5
the main impact which effect on world economy from u.s. is DOLLAR.

Give your answer to this question below!

Introduction

Political system is one of the subsystem of society, and play sufficient role in our life.

The term political system refers to a recognized set of procedures for implementing and obtaining the goals of a group.

Each society must have a political system in order to maintain recognized procedures for allocating valued resources. In political scientist Harold Lasswell’s (1936) terms, politics is who gets what, when, and how. Thus, like religion and the family, a political system is a cultural universal; it is a social institution found in every society.

We will focus on government and politics within the United States as well as other industrialized nations and preindustrial societies. In their study of politics and political systems, sociologists are concerned with social interactions among individuals and groups and their impact on the larger political order. For example, in studying the controversy over the nomination of Judge Robert Bork, sociologists might wish to focus on how a change in the group structure of American society—the increasing importance of the black vote for southern Democratic candidates—affected the decision making of Howell Heflin and other senators (and, ultimately, the outcome of the Bork confirmation battle). From a sociological perspective, therefore, a fundamental question is: how do a nation’s social conditions affect its day-to-day political and governmental life?

POWER

Power is at the heart of a political system. Power may be defined as the ability to exercise one’s will over others. To put it another way, if one party in a relationship can control the behavior of the other, that individual or group is exercising power. Power relations can involve large organizations, small groups, or even people in an intimate association. Blood and Wolfe (1960) devised the concept of marital power to describe the manner in which decision making is distributed within families.

There are three basic sources of power within any political system—force, influence, and authority. Force is the actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will on others. When leaders imprison or even execute political dissidents, they are applying force; so, too, are terrorists when they seize an embassy or assassinate a political leader. Influence, on the other hand, refers to the exercise of power through a process of persuasion. A citizen may change his or her position regarding a Supreme Court nominee because of a newspaper editorial, the expert testimony of a law school dean before the Senate Judiciary Committee, or a stirring speech at a rally by a political activist. In each case, sociologists would view such efforts to persuade people as examples of influence. Authority, the third source of power, will be discussed later.

Max Weber made an important distinction between legitimate and illegitimate power. In a political sense, the term legitimacy refers to the “belief of a citizenry that a government has the right to rule and that a citizen ought to obey the rules and laws of that government”. Of course, the meaning of the term can be extended beyond the sphere of government. Americans typically accept the power of their parents, teachers, and religious leaders as legitimate. By contrast, if the right of a leader to rule is not accepted by most citizens (as is often the case when a dictator overthrows a popularly elected government), the regime will be considered illegitimate. When those in power lack legitimacy, they usually resort to coercive methods in order to maintain control over social institutions.

How is political power distributed among members of society?

Political power is not divided evenly among all members of society. How extreme is this inequality? Three theoretical perspectives answer this question in three different ways. First, Marxist theories suggest that power is concentrated in the hands of the few who own the means of production. Powerful capitalists manipulate social and cultural arrangements to increase further their wealth and power, often at the expense of the powerless.

Second, power elite theories agree that power is concentrated in the hands of a few people; the elite includes military leaders, government officials, and business executives. This group consists of those who occupy the top positions in our organizational hierarchies; they have similar backgrounds and share the same interests and goals. According to this view, any organization (even a nation-state) has a built-in tendency to become an oligarchy (rule by the few).

Third, pluralist theories suggest that various groups and interests compete for political power. In contrast to Marxist and power elite theorists, pluralists see power as dispersed among many people and groups who do not necessarily agree on what should be done. Lobbyists for environmental groups, for example, will battle with lobbyists for the coal industry over antipollution legislation. In this way the will of the people is translated into political action. Thurow, however, suggests that too many divergent views have made it nearly impossible to arrive at a public policy that is both effective in solving social problems and satisfactory to different interest groups.

TYPES OF AUTHORITY

The term authority refers to power that has been institutionalized and is recognized by the people over whom it is exercised. Sociologists commonly use the term in connection with those who hold legitimate power through elected or publicly acknowledged positions. It is important to stress that a person’s authority is limited by the constraints of a particular social position. Thus, a referee has the authority to decide whether a penalty should be called during a football game but has no authority over the price of tickets to the game.

Max Weber (1947) provided a classification system regarding authority that has become one of the most useful and frequently cited contributions of early sociology. He identified three ideal types of authority: traditional, legal-rational, and charismatic. Weber did not insist that particular societies fit exactly into any one of these categories. Rather, all can be present in a society, but their relative degree of importance varies. Sociologists have found Weber’s typology to be quite valuable in understanding different manifestations of legitimate power within a society.

Traditional Authority

In a political system based on traditional authority, legitimate power is conferred by custom and accepted practice. The orders of one’s superiors are felt to be legitimate because “this is how things have always been done.” For example, a king or queen is accepted as ruler of a nation simply by virtue of inheriting the crown. The monarch may be loved or hated, competent or destructive; in terms of legitimacy, that does not matter. For the traditional leader, authority rests in custom, not in personal characteristics, technical competence, or even written law.

Traditional authority is absolute in many instances because the ruler has the ability to determine laws and policies. Since the authority is legitimized by ancient custom, traditional authority is commonly associated with preindustrial societies. Yet this form of authority is also evident in more developed nations. For example, a leader may take on the image of having divine guidance, as was true of Japan’s Emperor Hirohito, who ruled during World War II. On another level, ownership and leadership in some small businesses, such as grocery stores and restaurants, may pass directly from parent to child and generation to generation.

Legal-Rational Authority

Power made legitimate by law is known as legal-rational authority. Leaders of such societies derive their authority from the written rules and regulations of political systems. For example, the authority of the president of the United States and the Congress is legitimized by the American Constitution. Generally, in societies based on legal-rational authority, leaders are conceived as servants of the people. They are not viewed as having divine inspiration, as are the heads of certain societies with traditional forms of authority The United States, as a society which values the rule of law, has legally defined limits on the power of government. Power is assigned to positions, not to individuals. Thus, when Ronald Reagan became president in early 1981, he assumed the formal powers and duties of that office as specified by the Constitution. When Reagan’s presidency ended, those powers were transferred to his successor.

If a president acts within the legitimate powers of the office, but not to our liking, we may wish to elect a new president. But we will not normally argue that the president’s power is illegitimate. However, if an official clearly exceeds the power of an office, as Richard Nixon did by obstructing justice during investigation of the Watergate burglary, the official’s power may come to be seen as illegitimate. Moreover, as was true of Nixon, the person may be forced out of office.

Charismatic Authority

Weber also observed that power can be legitimized by the charisma of an individual. The term charismatic authority refers to power made legitimate by a leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers. Charisma allows a person to lead or inspire without relying on set rules or traditions. Interestingly, such authority is derived more from the beliefs of loyal followers than from the actual qualities of leaders. So long as people perceive the person as possessing qualities that set him or her apart from ordinary citizens, the leader’s authority will remain secure and often unquestioned.

Political scientist Ann Ruth Willner (1984) notes that each charismatic leader draws upon the values, beliefs, and traditions of a particular society. The conspicuous sexual activity of longtime Indonesian president Achmed Sukarno reminded his followers of the gods in Japanese legends and therefore was regarded as a sign of power and heroism. By contrast, Indians saw Mahatma Gandhi’s celibacy as a demonstration of superhuman self-discipline. Charismatic leaders also associate themselves with widely respected cultural and religious heroes. Willner describes how Ayalollah Khomeini of Iran associated himself with Husein, a Shiile Muslim martyr; and Fidel Castro of Cuba associated himself with Jesus Christ.

Unlike traditional rulers, charismatic leaders often become well known by breaking with established institutions and advocating dramatic changes in the social structure. The strong hold that such individuals have over their followers makes it easier to build protest movements which challenge the dominant norms and values of a society. Thus, charismatic leaders such as Jesus, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King all used their power to press for changes in accepted social behavior. But so did Adolf Hitler, whose charismatic appeal turned people toward violent and destructive ends.

Since it rests on the appeal of a single individual, charismatic authority is necessarily much shorter lived than either traditional or legal-rational authority. As a result, charismatic leaders may attempt to solidify their positions of power by seeking other legitimating mechanisms. For example, Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba in 1959 as the leader of a popular revolution. Yet in the decades which followed the seizure of power, Castro stood for election (without opposition) as a means of further legitimating his authority as leader of Cuba.

If such authority is to extend beyond the lifetime of the charismatic leader, it must undergo what Weber called the routinization of charismatic authority—the process by which the leadership qualities originally associated with an individual are incorporated into either a traditional or a legal-rational system. Thus, the charismatic authority of Jesus as leader of the Christian church was transferred to the apostle Peter and subsequently to the various prelates (or popes) of the faith. Similarly, the emotional fervor supporting George Washington was routinized into America’s constitutional system and the norm of a two-term presidency. Once routinization has taken place, authority eventually evolves into a traditional or legal-rational form.

As was noted earlier, Weber used traditional, legal-rational, and charismatic authority as ideal types. In reality, particular leaders and political systems combine elements of two or more of these forms. Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy wielded power largely through the legal-rational basis of their authority. At the same time, they were unusually charismatic leaders who commanded (lie personal loyalty of large numbers of Americans.

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT

Each society establishes a political system by which it is governed. In modern industrial nations, a significant number of critical political decisions are made by formal units of government. Five basic types of government are considered: monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, totalitarianism, and democracy.

Monarchy

A monarchy is a form of government headed by a single member of a royal family, usually a king, a queen, or some other hereditary ruler. In earlier times, many monarchs claimed that God had granted them a divine right to rule their lands. Typically, they governed on the basis of traditional forms of authority, although these were sometimes accompanied by the use of force. In the 1980s, monarchs hold genuine governmental power in only a few nations, such as Monaco. Most monarchs have little practical power and primarily serve ceremonial purposes.

Oligarchy

An oligarchy is a form of government in which a few individuals rule. It is a rather old method of governing which flourished in ancient Greece and Egypt. Today, oligarchy often takes the form of military rule. Some of the developing nations of Africa, Asia, and Latin America are ruled by small factions of military officers who forcibly seized power—either from legally elected regimes or from other military cliques.

Strictly speaking, the term oligarchy is reserved for governments run by a few select individuals. However, the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China can be classified as oligarchies if we extend the meaning of the term somewhat. In each case, power rests in the hands of a ruling group—the Communist party. In a similar vein, drawing upon conflict theory, one may argue that many industrialized “democratic” nations of the west should rightly be considered oligarchies, since only a powerful few actually rule: leaders of big business, government, and the military. Later, we will examine this “elite model” of the American political system in greater detail.

Dictatorship and Totalitarianism

A dictatorship is a government in which one person has nearly total power to make and enforce laws. Dictators rule primarily through the use of coercion, often including torture and executions. Typically, they seize power, rather than being freely elected (as in a democracy) or inheriting a position of power (as is true of monarchs). Some dictators are quite charismatic and achieve a certain “popularity,” though this popular support is almost certain to be intertwined with fear. Other dictators are bitterly hated by the populations over whom they rule with an iron hand.

Frequently, dictatorships develop such overwhelming control over people’s lives that they are called totalitarian. Monarchies and oligarchies also have the potential to achieve this type of dominance. Totalitarianism involves virtually complete governmental control and surveillance over all aspects of social and political life in a society. Bolt Nazi Germany under Hitler and the Soviet Union of the 1980s are classified as totalitarian states.

Political scientists Carl Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski have identified six bask traits that typify totalitarian states. These include:

Large-scale use of ideology. Totalitarian societies offer explanations for every part of life. Social goals, valued behaviors, even enemies are conveyed in simple (and usually distorted) terms. For example, the Nazis blamed Jews for almost every. thing wrong in Germany or other nations. If there was a crop failure due to drought, it was sure to be seen as a Jewish conspiracy. One-party systems. A totalitarian Style has only one legal political party, which monopolizes the offices of government. It penetrates and controls all social institutions and serves as the source of wealth, prestige, and power. Control of weapons. Totalitarian states also monopolize the use of arms. All military units art subject to the control of the ruling regime. Terror. Totalitarian states often rely on general intimidation (such as prohibiting unapproved publications) and individual deterrent (such as torture and execution) to maintain control (Bahry and Silver, 1987). Alexander Solzhenitsyn’s Gulag Archipelago (1973) describe the Soviet Union’s imprisonment of political dissenters in mental hospitals, where they are subjected to drug and electric shock treatments. Control of the media. There is no “opposition press” in a totalitarian state. The media communicate official interpretations of events and reinforce behaviors and policies favored by the regime. Control of the economy. Totalitarian states control major sectors of the economy. They may dissolve private ownership of industry and even small farms. In some cases, the central state establishes production goals for each industrial and agricultural unit. The revolt of the Polish workers’ union. Solidarity, in the early 1980s was partly directed against the government’s power over production quotas, working conditions, and prices.

Through such methods, totalitarian governments deny people representation in the political, economic, and social decisions that affect their lives. Such governments have pervasive control over people’s destinies.

Democracy

In a literal sense, democracy means government by the people. The word democracy originated in two Greek roots—demos, meaning “the populace” or “the common people”; and kratia, meaning “rule.” Of course, in large, populous nations, government by all the people is impractical at the national level. It would be impossible for the more than 246 million Americans to vote on every important issue that comes before Congress. Consequently, democracies are generally maintained through a mode of participation known as representative democracy, in which certain individuals are selected to speak for the people.

The United States is commonly classified as a representative democracy, since we elect members of Congress and state legislatures to handle the task of writing our laws. However, critics have questioned how representative our democracy is. Are the masses genuinely represented? Is there authentic self-government in the United States or merely competition between powerful elites?

Clearly, citizens cannot be effectively represented if they are not granted the right to vote. Yet our nation did not enfranchise black males until 1870, and women were not allowed to vote in presidential elections until 1920. American Indians were allowed to become citizens (thereby qualifying to vote) only in 1924, and as late as 1956, some states prevented Indians from voting in local elections if they lived on reservations.

Unlike monarchies, oligarchies, and dictatorships, the democratic form of government implies an opposition which is tolerated or, indeed, encouraged to exist. In the United States, we have two major political parties—the Democrats and Republicans—as well as various minor parties. Sociologists use the term political party to refer to an organization whose purposes are to promote candidates for elected office, advance an ideology as reflected in positions on political issues, win elections, and exercise power. Whether a democracy has two major political parties (as in the United States) or incorporates a multiparty system (as in France and Israel), it will typically stress the need for differing points of view.

Seymour Martin Upset, among other sociologists, has attempted to identify the factors which may help to bring about democratic forms of government. He argues that a high level of economic development encourages both stability and democracy. Upset reached this conclusion after studying 50 nations and finding a high correlation between economic development and certain forms of government.

Why should there be such a link? In a society with a high level of development, the population generally tends to be urbanized and literate and is better equipped to participate in decision making and make the views of its members heard. In addition, as Upset suggests, a relatively affluent society will be comparatively free from demands on government by low-income citizens. Poor people in such nations can reasonably aspire to upward mobility. Therefore, along with the large middle class typically found in industrial societies, the poorer segments of society may have a stake in economic and political stability.

Upset’s formulation has been attacked by conflict theorists, who tend to be critical of the distribution of power within democracies. As we will see later, many conflict theorists believe that the United States is run by a small economic and political elite. At the same time, they observe that economic stability does not necessarily promote or guarantee political freedoms. Lipset (1972) himself agrees that democracy in practice is far from ideal and that one must distinguish between varying degrees of democracy in democratic systems of government. Thus, we cannot assume that a high level of economic development or the self-proclaimed label of “democracy” assures freedom and adequate political representation.

POLITICAL BEHAVIOR IN THE UNITED STATES

As American citizens we take for granted many aspects of our political system. We are accustomed to living in a nation with a Bill of Rights, two major political parties, voting by secret ballot, an elected president, state and local governments distinct from the national government, and so forth. Yet, of course, each society has its own ways of governing itself and making decisions. Just as we expect Democratic and Republican candidates to compete for public offices, residents of the Soviet Union are accustomed to the domination of the Communist party. In this section, we will examine a number of important aspects of political behavior within the United States.

Political Socialization

Five functional prerequisites that a society must fulfill in order to survive were identified. Among these was the need to teach recruits to accept the values and customs of the group. In a political sense, this function is crucial; each succeeding generation must be encouraged to accept a society’s basic political values and its particular methods of decision making.

Political socialization is the process by which individuals acquire political attitudes and develop patterns of political behavior. This involves not only learning the prevailing beliefs of a society but also coming to accept the surrounding political system despite its limitations and problems. In the United States, people are socialized to view representative democracy as the best form of government and to cherish such values as freedom, equality, patriotism, and the right of dissent.

The principal institutions of political socialization are those which also socialize us to other cultural norms—including the family, schools, and the media. Many observers see the family as playing a particularly significant role in this process. “The family incubates political man,” observed political scientist Robert Lane. In fact, parents pass on their political attitudes and evaluations to their sons and daughters through discussions at the dinner table and also through the example of their political involvement or apathy. Early socialization does not always determine a person’s political orientation; there are changes over time and between generations. Yet research on political socialization continues to show that parents’ views have an important impact on their children’s outlook.

The schools can be influential in political socialization, since they provide young people with information and analysis of the political world. Unlike the family and peer groups, schools are easily susceptible to centralized and uniform control; consequently, totalitarian societies commonly use educational institutions for purposes of indoctrination. Yet, even in democracies, where local schools are not under the pervasive control of the national government, political education will generally reflect the norms and values of the prevailing political order.

In the view of conflict theorists, American students learn much more than factual information about our political and economic way of life. They are socialized to view capitalism and representative democracy as the “normal” and most desirable ways of organizing a nation. At the same time, competing values and forms of government are often presented in a most negative fashion or are ignored. From a conflict perspective, this type of political education serves the interests of the powerful and ignores the significance of the social divisions found within the United States.

It is difficult to pinpoint a precise time in which politics is learned. Fred Greenstein argues that the crucial time in a young person’s psychological, social, and political development is between ages 9 and 13. In the same vein, one study found that children 13 and 14 years of age were much more able to understand abstract political concepts than were children a few years younger. Specifically, in response to a question about the meaning of government, older children tended to identify with Congress, whereas younger children identified with a more personal figure such as the president. Other research, however, points to a significant leap in political sophistication during the ages of 13 to 15.

Surprisingly, expression of a preference for a political party often comes before young people have a full understanding of the political system. Surveys indicate that 65 to 75 percent of children aged 10 and 11 express commitment to a specific political label, including “independent.” Political scientists M. Kent Jennings and Richard G. Niemi (1974) have found that children who demonstrate high levels of political competence—by understanding the differences between political parties and between liberal and conservative philosophies—are more likely to become politically active during adulthood.

Like the family and schools, the mass media can have obvious effects on people’s thinking and political behavior. Beginning with the Kennedy-Nixon presidential debates of 1960, television has given increasing exposure to political candidates. One result has been the rising importance of politicians’ “images” as perceived by the American public. Today, many speeches given by our nation’s leaders are designed not for immediate listeners, but for the larger television audience. In the social policy section later, we will examine the impact of television on American political campaigns.

Although television has obvious impact on elective politics, it has also become an important factor in other aspects of American political life. In 1987, when a joint congressional committee held televised hearings on the Iran-contra scandal, Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North’s outspoken testimony brought him a wave of public support. One effect of his media success, though primarily in the short run, was an increase in support for the “contras” and their effort to overthrow Nicaragua’s Marxist regime. By contrast. Judge Robert Bork’s televised testimony before the Senate Judiciary Committee in 1987 seemed to hurt his chances of winning confirmation as a Supreme Court justice.

A number of communication studies have reported that the media do not tend to influence the masses of people directly. Elihu Katz (1957) describes the process as a two-step flow of communication, using an approach which reflects interactionists’ emphasis on the social significance of everyday social exchanges. In Katz’s view, messages passed through the media first reach a small number of opinion leaders, including teachers, religious authorities, and community activists. These leaders “spread the word” to others over whom they have influence.

Opinion leaders are not necessarily formal leaders of organized groups of people. For example, someone who hears a disturbing report about the dangers of radioactive wastes in a nearby river will probably tell family members and friends. Each of these persons may inform still others and perhaps persuade them to support the position of an environmentalist group working to clean up the river. Of course, in any communications process in which someone plays an intermediate role, the message can be reinterpreted. Opinion leaders can subtly transform a political message to their own ends.

Participation and Apathy

In theory, a representative democracy will function most effectively and fairly if there is an informed and active electorate communicating its views to government leaders. Unfortunately, this is hardly the case in the United States. Virtually all Americans are familiar with the basics of the political process, and most tend to identify to some extent with a political party, but only a small minority (often members of the higher social classes) actually participate in political organizations on a local or national level. Studies reveal that only 8 percent of Americans belong to a political club or organization. Not more than one in five has ever contacted an official of national, state, or local government about a political issue or problem.

The failure of most Americans to become involved in political parties has serious implications for the functioning of our democracy. Within the political system of the United States, the political party serves as an intermediary between people and government. Through competition in regularly scheduled elections, the two-party system provides for challenges to public policies and for an orderly transfer of power. An individual dissatisfied with the state of the nation or a local community can become involved in the political party process in many ways, such as by joining a political club, supporting candidates for public office, or working to change the party’s position on controversial issues. If, however, people do not take interest in the decisions of major political parties, public officials in a “representative” democracy will be chosen from two unrepresentative lists of candidates. In the 1980s, it has become clear that many

Americans are turned off by political parties, politicians, and the specter of big government. The most dramatic indication of this growing alienation comes from voting statistics. Voters of all ages and races appear to be less enthusiastic than ever about American elections, even presidential contests. For example, almost 80 percent of eligible American voters went to the polls in the presidential election of 1896. Yet, by the 1984 election, voter turnout had fallen to less than 60 percent of all adults. By contrast, elections during the first half of the 1980s brought out 85 percent or more of the voting-age population in Austria, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Sweden.

Declining political participation allows institutions of government to operate with less of a sense of accountability to society. This issue is most serious for the least powerful individual and groups within the United States. Voter turn out has been particularly low among younger Americans and members of racial and ethnic minorities. In 1984, only 36 percent of eligible voters aged 18 to 20 went to the polls. According to a postelection survey, only 55.8 percent of eligible black voters and 32.6 percent of Hispanic reported that they had actually voted. Moreover, the poor—whose focus understandably is on survival—are traditionally under-represented among voters as well. The low turnout found among these groups is explained, at least in part, by their common feeling of powerlessness. Yet such voting statistics encourage political power brokers to continue to ignore the interests of the young, the less affluent, and the nation’s minorities.

Sociologist Anthony Orum notes that people are more likely to participate actively in political life if they have a sense of political efficacy—that is, if they feel that they have (he ability to influence politicians and the political order. In addition, citizens are more likely to become involved if they trust political leaders or feel that an organized political party represents their interest. Without question, in an age marked by the rise of big government and by revelations of political corruption at the highest levels, many Americans of all social groups feel powerless and distrustful. Yet such feelings are especially intense among the young, the poor, and minorities. is a result, many view political participation, including voting, as a waste of time.

Cross-national comparisons, while confirming he comparatively low level of voting in the linked States, also suggest that Americans are more likely than citizens of other nations to be active at the community level, to contact local officials on behalf of themselves or others, and to have worked for a political party. Perhaps this contrast reflects how unusual it is for people to be directly involved in national political decision making in the modem world. Nevertheless, it is possible to speculate that if tens of millions of Americans did not stay home on Election Day— and instead became more active in the nation’s political life—the outcome of the political process might be somewhat different.

Women and Politics

In 1984, American women achieved an unprecedented political breakthrough when Representative Geraldine Ferraro of New York became the Democratic nominee for vice president of the United States. Never before had a woman received the nomination of a major party for such high office.

Nevertheless, women continue to be dramatically underrepresented in the halls of government. In 1988, there were only 23 women (out of 435 members) in the House of Representatives and only 2 women (out of 100 members) in the Senate. This is not because women have failed to participate actively in political life. Eligible women vote at a slightly higher rate than men. The League of Women Voters, founded in 1920, is a nonpartisan organization which performs valuable functions in educating the electorate of both sexes. Perhaps the most visible role of women in American politics is as unpaid workers for male candidates: ringing doorbells, telephoning registered voters, and carrying petitions. In addition, wives of elected male politicians commonly play significant supportive roles and are increasingly speaking out in their own right on important and controversial issues of public policy.

The sexism of American society has been the most serious barrier to women interested in holding public office. Female candidates have had to overcome the prejudices of both men and women regarding women’s fitness for leadership. Not until 1955 did a majority of Americans state that they would vote for a qualified woman for president. Yet, as a 1984 national survey revealed, Americans say they will support a woman running for office only if she is by far the most qualified candidate.

Moreover, women often encounter prejudice, discrimination, and abuse after they are elected. In 1979, a questionnaire was circulated among male legislators in Oregon, asking them to “categorize the lady legislators” with such labels as “mouth, face, chest/dress, and so forth”.

Despite such indignities, women are becoming more successful in winning election to public office. For example, there were 1176 women in state legislatures in 1988, as compared with only 31 in 1921,144 in 1941, and 301 in 1969. Not only are more women being elected; more of them are identifying themselves as feminists. The traditional woman in politics was a widow who took office after her husband’s death to continue his work and policies. However, women being elected in the 1980s are much more likely to view politics as their own career rather than as an afterthought. These trends are not restricted to the United States.

A new dimension of women and politics emerged in the 1980s. Surveys detected a growing “gender gap” in the political preferences and activities of males and females. Women were more likely to register as Democrats than as Republicans and were also more critical of the policies of the Republican administration. What accounts for this “gender gap”? According to political analysts, the Democratic party’s continued support for the equal rights amendment may be attracting women voters, a majority of whom support this measure. At the same time, virtually all polling data indicate that women are substantially less likely than men to favor large defense budgets and military intervention overseas; these policies have become more associated with the Republican party of the 1980s than with the Democrats.

Politicians have begun to watch carefully the voting trends among women, since women voters could prove decisive in dose elections. The gender gap did appear to be a factor in the 1984 elections—though not as significant a factor as some observers had expected. According to a poll by ABC News, men supported President Ronald Reagan’s successful bid for reelection by a margin of 63 to 36 percent. By contrast, 56 percent of women voted for Reagan while 44 percent supported the Democratic ticket of Walter Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro. In the 1986 elections, the ender gap narrowed somewhat, yet apparently contributed to the victories of Democratic senatorial candidates in at least nine states, four of them in the south. For example, in Colorado, men supported Republican Ken Kramer over Democrat Timothy Wirth by a 49 to 48 percent margin, yet Wirth was elected because women preferred him by a 53 to 44 percent margin. By contributing to these Democratic victories, women voters were an important factor in the party’s 1986 takeover of e Senate.

Interest Groups

This discussion of political behavior has focused primarily on individual participation (and non-participation) in the decision-making processes of government and on involvement in the nation’s political parties. However, there are other important ways that American citizens can play a role in the nation’s political arena. Because of common needs or common frustrations, people may band together in social movements such as the civil rights movement of the 1960s or the anti-nuclear power movement of the 1980s. Americans can also influence the political process through membership in interest groups (some of which, in fact, may be part of larger social movements).

An interest group is a voluntary association of citizens who attempt to influence public policy. The National Organization for Women (NOW) is considered an interest group, so, too, are the Juvenile Diabetes Foundation and the National Rifle Association (NRA). Such groups are a vital part of the American political process Many interest groups (often known as lobbies) are national in scope and address a wide variety of political and social issues As we saw earlier, groups such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Common Cause, the American Conservative Union, and Christian Voice were all actively involved in the debate over the nomination of Judge Robert Bork for the Supreme Court.

Typically, we think of interest groups as being primarily concerned with regulatory legislation However, as political scientist Barbara Ann Stolz (1981) points out, even the federal criminal code has become a target for interest-group activity Business groups have sought to strike the “reckless endangerment” provision that, in effect, makes it a crime for a business to engage knowingly in conduct that will imperil someone’s life Business interests have also attempted to broaden the criminal code to include certain types of incidents that occur during labor disputes, unions, by contrast, wish to maintain current laws.

Interest groups often pursue their political goals through lobbying—the process by which individuals and groups communicate with public officials in order to influence decisions of government. They also distribute persuasive literature and launch publicity campaigns to build grass roots support for their political objectives Finally, interest groups, through their political action committees, donate funds to political candidates whose views are in line with the groups’ legislative agendas.

The role of interest groups within the American political system has generated intense controversy, particularly because of the special relation ships that exist between government officials and lobbyists for interest groups The widespread nature of these ties is evident from the number of former legislators who, after retiring or losing bids for reelection, immediately go on the payroll of interest groups In 1985, there were 300 former lawmakers and former high-level White House officials parlaying their governmental experience into profitable new careers as Washington lawyers, lobbyists, consultants, and administrators So pervasive is this network of insiders that an organization. Former Members of Congress, links them together Currently, there are no laws preventing members of Congress from returning as lobbyists to reshape (or even dismantle) legislation that they created in the public interest.

Interest groups are occasionally referred to as pressure groups, implying that they attempt to force their will on a resistant public In the view of functionalists, such groups play a constructive role in decision making by allowing orderly expression of public opinion and by increasing political participation They also provide legislators with a useful flow of information

Conflict theorists stress that although a very few organizations work on behalf of the poor and disadvantaged, most American interest groups represent affluent white professionals and business leaders From a conflict perspective, the overwhelming political clout of these powerful lobbies discourages participation by the individual citizen and raises serious questions about who actually rules a supposedly democratic nation.

MODELS OF POWER STRUCTURE IN THE UNITED STATES

Who really holds power in the United States’ Do “we the people” genuinely run the country through elected representatives? Or is there small elite of Americans that governs behind the scenes? It is difficult to determine the location of power in a society as complex as the Unite States In exploring this critical question, social scientists have developed two basic views of our nation’s power structure the elite and pluralism models.

Elite Model

Karl Marx essentially believed that nineteenth century representative democracy was a shape.

He argued that industrial societies were dominated by relatively small numbers of people who owned factories and controlled natural resources In Marx’s view, government officials and military leaders were essentially servants of the capitalist class and followed their wishes therefore, any key decisions made by politicians inevitably reflected the interests of the dominant bourgeoisie Like others who hold an elite model of power relations, Marx thus believed that society is ruled by a small group of individuals who share a common set of political and economic interests.

The Power Elite. In his pioneering work. The Power Elite, sociologist C. Wright Mills described the existence of a small ruling elite of military, industrial, and governmental leaders who controlled the fate of the United States. Power rested in the hands of a few, both inside and outside of government—the power elite. In Mill’s words:

The power elite is composed of men whose positions enable them to transcend the ordinary environments of ordinary men and women, they are in positions to make decisions having major consequences. … They arc in command of the major hierarchies and organizations of modern society.

In Mills’s model, the power structure of the United States can be illustrated by the use of a pyramid. At the top are the corporate rich, leaders of the executive branch of government, and heads of the military (whom Kills called the “warlords”). Below this triumvirate are local opinion leaders, members of the legislative branch of government, and leaders of special-interest groups. Mills contended that such individuals and groups would basically follow the wishes of the dominant power elite. At the bottom of society are the unorganized, exploited masses.

This power elite model is, in many respects, similar to the work of Karl Marx. The most striking difference is that Mills felt that the economically powerful coordinate their maneuvers with the military and political establishments in order to serve their mutual interests. Yet, reminiscent of Marx. Mills argued that the corporate rich were perhaps the most powerful element of the power elite (first among “equals”). And, of course, there is a further dramatic parallel between the work of these conflict theorists The powerless masses at the bottom of Mills’s power elite model certainly bring to mind Marx’s portrait of the oppressed workers of the world, who have “nothing to lose but their chains”.

Mills failed to provide detailed case studies which would substantiate the interrelationship among members of the power elite. Instead, he suggested that such foreign policy decisions as America’s entry into the Korean war reflected a determination by business and military leaders that each could benefit from such armed conflict. In Mills s view, such a sharing of perspectives was facilitated by the frequent interchange of commanding roles among the elite. For example, a banker might become the leader of a federal regulatory commission overseeing financial institutions, and a retired general might move to an executive position with a major defense contracting firm.

A fundamental element in Mills’s thesis is that the power elite not only has relatively few members but also operates as a self-conscious, cohesive unit. Although not necessarily diabolical or ruthless, the elite comprises similar types of people who regularly interact with one another and have essentially the same political and economic interests. Mills’s power elite is not a conspiracy but rather a community of interest and sentiment among a small number of influential Americans.

Admittedly, Mills failed to clarify when the elite acts and when it tolerates protests. Nevertheless, his challenging theories forced scholars to look more critically at the “democratic” political system of the United States.

The Ruling Class. Sociologist G. William Domhoff agreed with Mills that American society is run by a powerful elite. But, rather than fully accepting Mills’s power elite model, Domhoff argued that the United States is controlled by a social upper class “that is a ruling class by virtue of its dominant role in the economy and government”. This socially cohesive ruling class owns 20 to 25 percent of all privately held wealth and 45 to 50 percent of all privately held common stock.

Unlike Mills, Domhoff was quite specific about who belongs to this social upper class. Membership comes through being pan of a family recognized in The Social Register—the directory of the social elite in many American cities. Attendance at prestigious private schools and membership in exclusive social clubs are further indications that a person comes from America’s social upper class. Domhoff estimates that about 0.5 percent of the American population (or 1 of every 200 people) belongs to this social and political elite.

Of course, this would mean that the ruling class has more than 1 million members and could hardly achieve the cohesiveness that Mills attributed to the power elite. However, Domhoff adds that the social upper class as a whole does not rule the nation. Instead, members of this class who have assumed leadership roles within the corporate community or the nation’s policy-planning network join with high-level employees of profit-making and nonprofit institutions controlled by the social upper class to exercise power.

In Domhoff’s view, the ruling class should not be seen in a conspiratorial way, as “sinister men lurking behind the throne.” On the contrary they tend to hold public positions of authority. Almost all important appointive government posts— including those of diplomats and cabinet members—are filled by members of the social upper class. Domhoff contends that members of this class dominate powerful corporations, foundations, universities, and the executive branch of government. They control presidential nominations and the political party process through campaign contributions. In addition, the ruling class exerts a significant (though not absolute) influence within Congress and units of state and local government.

Perhaps the major difference between the elite models of Mills and Domhoff is that Mills insisted on the relative autonomy of the political elite and attached great significance to the independent power of the military. By contrast, Domhoff suggests that high-level government and military leaders serve the interests of the social upper class. Both theorists, in line with a Marxian approach, assume that the rich are interested only in what benefits them financially. Furthermore, as advocates of elite models of power. Mills and Domhoff argue that the masses of American people have no real influence on the decisions of the powerful.

One criticism of the elite model is that its advocates sometimes suggest that elites are always victorious. With this in mind, sociologist J. Alien Whitt (1982) examined the efforts of California’s business elites to support urban mass transit. He found that lobbying by these elites was successful in San Francisco but failed in Los Angeles. Whitt points out that opponents of policies backed by elites can mobilize to thwart their implementation.

Domhoff admits that the ruling class does not exercise total control over American society. However, he counters that this elite is able to set political terms under which other groups and classes must operate. Consequently, although the ruling class may lose on a particular issue, it will not allow serious challenges to laws which guarantee its economic privileges and political domination.

Pluralist Model

Several social scientists have questioned the elite models of power relations proposed by Marx, Mills, Domhoff, and other conflict theorists. Quite simply, the critics insist that power in the United States is more widely shared than the elite model indicates. In their view, a pluralist model more accurately describes the American political system. According to the pluralist model, “many conflicting groups within the community have access to government officials and compete with one another in an effort to influence policy decisions”.

Veto Groups. David Riesman’s The Lonely Crowd suggested that the American political system could best be understood through examination of the power of veto groups. The term veto groups refers to interest groups that have the capacity to prevent the exercise of power by others. Functionally, they serve to increase political participation by preventing the concentration of political power. Examples cited by Riesman include farm groups, labor unions, professional associations, and racial and ethnic groups. Whereas Mills pointed to the dangers of rule by an undemocratic power elite, Riesman insisted that veto groups could effectively paralyze the nation’s political processes by blocking anyone from exercising needed leadership functions. In Riesman’s words, “The only leaders of national scope left in the United States are those who can placate the veto groups”.

Dahl’s Study of Pluralism. Community studies of power have also supported the pluralist model. One of the most famous—an investigation of decision making in New Haven, Connecticut—was reported by Robert Dahl in his book, Who Governs? (1961). Dahl found that while the number of people involved in any important decision was rather small, community power was nonetheless diffuse. Few political actors exercised decision-making power on all issues. Therefore, one individual or group might be influential in a battle over urban renewal but at the same time might have little impact over educational policy. Several other studies of local politics, in such communities as Chicago and Oberlin, Ohio, further document that monolithic power structures do not operate on the level of local government.

Just as the elite model has been challenged on political and methodological grounds, the pluralist model has been subjected to serious questioning. Domhoff (1978) reexamined Dahl’s study of decision making in New Haven and argued that Dahl and other pluralists had failed to trace how local elites prominent in decision making were part of a larger national ruling class. In addition, studies of community power, such as Dahl’s work in New Haven, can examine decision making only on issues which become pan of the political agenda. This focus fails to address the possible power of elites to keep certain matters entirely out of the realm of government debate. Conflict theorists contend that these elites will not allow any outcome of the political process which threatens their dominance. Indeed, they may even be strong enough to block discussion of such measures by policymakers.

Who Does Rule?

Without question, the pluralist and elite models have little in common. Each describes a dramatically different distribution of power, with sharply contrasting consequences for society. Is there any way that we can reconcile the vast disagreements in these two approaches?

Perhaps we can conclude that, despite their apparent points of incompatibility, each model offers an accurate picture of American political life. Power in various areas rests in the hands of a small number of citizens who are well-insulated from the will of the masses (elite view). Yet there are so many diverse issues and controversies in the nation’s political institutions that few individuals or groups consistently exercise power outside their distinctive spheres of influence (pluralist view). Even presidents of the United States have acknowledged that they felt more comfortable making decisions either in the area of foreign policy (Richard Nixon) or in the area of domestic policy (Lyndon Johnson). Moreover, the post-World War II period has seen increasing power vested in the federal government (elite model). But, even within the federal bureaucracy, there are a staggering number of agencies with differing ideas and interests (pluralist model).

We can end this discussion with the one common point of the elite and pluralist perspectives— power in the American political system is unequally distributed. All citizens may be equal in theory, yet those high in the nation’s power structure are “more equal.”

SUMMARY

Each society must have a political system in order to have recognized procedures for the allocation of valued resources—in Harold D. Lasswell’s terms, for deciding who gets what, when, and how. We have examined various types of political authority and forms of government and explores the dimensions of the American political system.

Power relations can involve large organizations, small groups, or even individuals in an intimate relationship. There are three basic sources of power within any political system — force, influence, and authority. Max Weber provided ( e of the most useful and frequently cited contributions of early sociology by identifying three ideal types of authority: traditional, legal-rational, and charismatic. The United States, as a society which values the role of law, has legally defined limits on the power of government. In the 1980s, monarchies hold genuine governmental power in only a few nations of the world. Today, oligarchy often takes the form of military rule, although the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China can be described as oligarchies in which power rests in the hands of the ruling Communist party. Political scientists Carl Friedrich and Zbigniew Brzezinski have identified six basic traits that typify totalitarianism: large-scale use of ideology, one-party systems, control of weapons, terror, control of the media, and control of the economy. The United States is commonly classified as a representative democracy, since we elect members of Congress and state legislatures to handle the task of writing our laws. The principal institutions of political socialization m American society arc the family, schools, and media. Only a small minority of Americans actually participate in political organizations or in decision making on a local or national level.

11.  Women are becoming more successful at winning election to public office.

12.  An interest group a often national in scope and frequently addresses a wide variety of social and political issues.

13.  Advocates of the elite model of the American power structure see the nation as being ruled by a small group of individuals who share common political and economic interests, whereas advocates of a pluralist model believe that power is more widely shared among conflicting groups.

14.  Television is having a growing impact on American political campaigns.

KEY TERMS

Authority Power that has been institutionalized and is recognized by the people over whom it is exercised.

Charismatic authority Max Weber’s term for power made legitimate by a leader’s exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers.

Democracy In a literal sense, government by the people.

Dictatorship A government in which one person has nearly total power to make and enforce laws.

Dictatorship of the proletariat Marx’s term for the temporary rule by the working class during a stage between the successful proletarian revolution and the establishment of a classless communist society.

Elite model A view of society as ruled by a small group of individuals who share a common set of political and economic interests.

Force The actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will on others.

Influence The exercise of power through a process of persuasion.

Interest group A voluntary association of citizens who attempt to influence public policy.

Legal-rational authority Max Weber’s term for power made legitimate by law.

Legitimacy The belief of a citizenry that a government has the right to rule and that a citizen ought to obey the rules and laws of that government.

Lobbying The process by which individuals and groups communicate with public officials in order to influence decisions of government.

Marital power A term used by Blood and Wolfe to describe the manner in which decision making is distributed within families.

Monarchy A form of government headed by a single member of a royal family, usually a king, a queen, or some other hereditary ruler.

Oligarchy A form of government in which a few individuals rule.

Pluralist model A view of society in which many conflicting groups within a community have access to governmental officials and compete with one another in an attempt to influence policy decisions.

Political action committee (PAC) A political committee established by a national bank, corporation, trade association, or cooperative or membership association to accept voluntary contributions for candidates or political parties.

Political efficacy The feeling that one has the ability to influence politicians and the political order.

Political party An organization whose purposes are to promote candidates for public office, advance an ideology as reflected in positions on public issues, win elections, and exercise power.

Political socialization The process by which individuals acquire political attitudes and develop patterns of political behavior.

Political system A recognized set of procedures for implementing and obtaining the goals of a group.

Politics In Harold D. Lasswell’s words, “who gets what, when, how.”

Power The ability to exercise one’s will over others.

Power elite A term used by C. Wright Mills for a small group of military, industrial, and government leaders who control the fate of the United States.

Pressure groups A term sometimes used to refer to interest groups.

Representative democracy A form of government in which certain individuals are selected to speak for the people.

Routinization of charismatic authority Max Weber’s term for the process by which the leadership qualities originally associated with an individual are incorporated into either a traditional or a legal-rational system of authority.

Terrorism The use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in pursuit of political aims.

Totalitarianism Virtually complete government control and surveillance over all aspects of social and political life in a society. (390)

Traditional authority Legitimate power conferred by custom and accepted practice.

Two-step flow of communication Elihu Katz’s term for a process through which a message is spread by the media to opinion leaders and is subsequently passedi along to the general public.

Veto groups David

Politics is funny when idiots are involved. www.liquidgeneration.com
Video Rating: 4 / 5

Find More Politics Articles
Question by Sonu: Politics ?
Has anyone suffered politics by co-workers at work place.
What happens to two of them at end of the day.

Best answer:

Answer by True Grits
What?

What do you think? Answer below!
Politics
Politics “The Tea Party, peek behind the Tea Party curtain and you will find Dick Armey. Dick has cashed in on his insider’s connections to fill his pockets as an influence peddler for the health care giants and foreign governments. Next he became an operative for the Koch brothers, running one of their political fronts called Freedom Works.
Read more on Bluffton Today